{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,15]],"date-time":"2026-10-15T22:04:10Z","timestamp":1792101850273,"version":"4.4.0"},"reference-count":57,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,14]],"date-time":"2025-11-14T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1763078400000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,14]],"date-time":"2025-11-14T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1763078400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sci Rep"],"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>\n                    This study investigates the advanced degradation of six common antibiotics using a novel Co\n                    <jats:sub>0.5<\/jats:sub>\n                    Fe\n                    <jats:sub>0.5<\/jats:sub>\n                    Fe\n                    <jats:sub>2<\/jats:sub>\n                    O\u2084 nanozyme. Under optimal conditions (pH 7, 0.5\u00a0mM H\n                    <jats:sub>2<\/jats:sub>\n                    O\n                    <jats:sub>2<\/jats:sub>\n                    , 15-min reaction time, and room temperature), the nanozyme demonstrated exceptional catalytic performance, achieved near-complete removal of ciprofloxacin, azithromycin, levofloxacin, moxifloxacin, amoxicillin, and metronidazole. Kinetic studies confirmed its superior catalytic activity, with a Michaelis\u2013Menten constant (\n                    <jats:italic>K<\/jats:italic>\n                    <jats:sub>\n                      <jats:italic>m<\/jats:italic>\n                    <\/jats:sub>\n                    ) of 0.0366\u00a0mM and a maximum reaction velocity (\n                    <jats:italic>V<\/jats:italic>\n                    <jats:sub>\n                      <jats:italic>max<\/jats:italic>\n                    <\/jats:sub>\n                    ) of 1.10\u2009\u00d7\u200910\u207b4\u00a0\u00b5M\u00b7min\u207b1. Mass spectrometry (MS) analysis elucidated the degradation pathways by identifying intermediate compounds and stepwise transformations, while total organic carbon (TOC) analysis confirmed the mineralization of pollutants into CO\n                    <jats:sub>2<\/jats:sub>\n                    and H\n                    <jats:sub>2<\/jats:sub>\n                    O. Compared to conventional catalysts, Co\n                    <jats:sub>0.5<\/jats:sub>\n                    Fe\n                    <jats:sub>0.5<\/jats:sub>\n                    Fe\n                    <jats:sub>2<\/jats:sub>\n                    O\u2084 exhibited superior activity without the need external activation, demonstrating its potential for efficient and sustainable water treatment. These findings are significant for environmental remediation and hold promise for practical applications in pharmaceuticals and wastewater treatment. Moreover, this work provides valuable insights into antibiotic degradation pathways, supporting its potential use in sustainable water treatment strategies.\n                  <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-025-23740-2","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,14]],"date-time":"2025-11-14T15:32:24Z","timestamp":1763134344000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":8,"title":["Exploration of degradation pathways of six antibiotics using a novel Co0.5Fe0.5Fe2O\u2084 nanozyme"],"prefix":"10.1038","volume":"15","author":[{"given":"Sepideh","family":"Ghasemi","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Farideh Nabizadeh","family":"Chianeh","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,14]]},"reference":[{"key":"23740_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"12639","DOI":"10.3390\/su151612639","volume":"15","author":"AV Samrot","year":"2023","unstructured":"Samrot, A. V. et al. Sources of antibiotic contamination in wastewater and approaches to their removal\u2014An overview. Sustainability 15, 12639. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/su151612639 (2023).","journal-title":"Sustainability"},{"key":"23740_CR2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"231","DOI":"10.15386\/mpr-1742","volume":"93","author":"SI Polianciuc","year":"2020","unstructured":"Polianciuc, S. I., Gurz\u0103u, A. E., Kiss, B., \u015etefan, M. G. & Loghin, F. Antibiotics in the environment: Causes and consequences. Med. Pharm. Rep. 93, 231\u2013240. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.15386\/mpr-1742 (2020).","journal-title":"Med. Pharm. Rep."},{"key":"23740_CR3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1461","DOI":"10.3390\/antibiotics11111461","volume":"11","author":"Z Maghsodian","year":"2022","unstructured":"Maghsodian, Z. et al. Occurrence and distribution of antibiotics in the water, sediment, and biota of freshwater and marine environments: A review. Antibiotics 11, 1461. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/antibiotics11111461 (2022).","journal-title":"Antibiotics"},{"key":"23740_CR4","volume-title":"Pharmaceuticals in the Environment: Sources, Fate, Effects and Risks","year":"2008","unstructured":"K\u00fcmmerer, K. (ed.) Pharmaceuticals in the Environment: Sources, Fate, Effects and Risks 3rd edn. (Springer, Berlin, 2008).","edition":"3"},{"key":"23740_CR5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4436","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules27144436","volume":"27","author":"MPC Mora-Gamboa","year":"2022","unstructured":"Mora-Gamboa, M. P. C. et al. Impact of antibiotics as waste, physical, chemical, and enzymatical degradation: Use of laccases. Molecules 27, 4436. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/molecules27144436 (2022).","journal-title":"Molecules"},{"key":"23740_CR6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jwpe.2025.108293","volume":"76","author":"A Abdulrahman","year":"2025","unstructured":"Abdulrahman, A. et al. Insights into the development of visible-light-induced CeO2\u2013TiO2\/g\u2013C\u2083N\u2084 heterojunction catalysts for the mitigation of antibiotic pollutants. J. Water Process Eng. 76, 108293. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.jwpe.2025.108293 (2025).","journal-title":"J. Water Process Eng."},{"key":"23740_CR7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"57321","DOI":"10.1007\/s11356-021-14735-3","volume":"28","author":"S Yao","year":"2021","unstructured":"Yao, S. et al. Occurrence and removal of antibiotics, antibiotic resistance genes, and bacterial communities in hospital wastewater. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. Int. 28, 57321\u201357333. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s11356-021-14735-3 (2021).","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. Int."},{"key":"23740_CR8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jwpe.2020.101681","volume":"38","author":"Z-Y Lu","year":"2020","unstructured":"Lu, Z.-Y. et al. A critical review of antibiotic removal strategies: Performance and mechanisms. J. Water Process Eng. 38, 101681. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.jwpe.2020.101681 (2020).","journal-title":"J. Water Process Eng."},{"issue":"1","key":"23740_CR9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"102","DOI":"10.3390\/w12010102","volume":"12","author":"EM Cuerda-Correa","year":"2020","unstructured":"Cuerda-Correa, E. M., Alexandre-Franco, M. F. & Fern\u00e1ndez-Gonz\u00e1lez, C. Advanced oxidation processes for the removal of antibiotics from water: An overview. Water 12(1), 102. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/w12010102 (2020).","journal-title":"Water"},{"key":"23740_CR10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jwpe.2024.106266","volume":"67","author":"A Ahmed","year":"2024","unstructured":"Ahmed, A. et al. Enhanced activation of peroxymonosulfate by nanomagnetic CoFe2O\u2084\u2013CeO2\/g-C\u2083N\u2084 composites as a heterogeneous catalyst for metronidazole degradation. J. Water Process Eng. 67, 106266. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.jwpe.2024.106266 (2024).","journal-title":"J. Water Process Eng."},{"key":"23740_CR11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jwpe.2025.107113","volume":"71","author":"MB Safa","year":"2025","unstructured":"Safa, M. B., Steffy, J. P., Alfagham, A. T., Elgorban, A. M. & Khan, S. S. Enhanced metronidazole degradation in water by a novel Cu\u2070 integrated LaNiO\u2083 nanorod and by-products toxicity evaluation. J. Water Process Eng. 71, 107113. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.jwpe.2025.107113 (2025).","journal-title":"J. Water Process Eng."},{"key":"23740_CR12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jwpe.2025.107475","volume":"72","author":"MB Safa","year":"2025","unstructured":"Safa, M. B. et al. Unveiling the enhanced rhodamine B degradation in water by Sn\u2083O\u2084@Au: Insight into degradation pathway and by-products toxicity evaluation. J. Water Process Eng. 72, 107475. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.jwpe.2025.107475 (2025).","journal-title":"J. Water Process Eng."},{"key":"23740_CR13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jwpe.2025.108057","volume":"75","author":"JP Steffy","year":"2025","unstructured":"Steffy, J. P. et al. Defect engineering of sulfur vacancies in ZnIn2S\u2084 nanoflower integrated with Ag\u2070 in NaBH\u2084 activation toward organic contaminates degradation: Critical role of Cu2\u207a and mechanism insight. J. Water Process Eng. 75, 108057. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.jwpe.2025.108057 (2025).","journal-title":"J. Water Process Eng."},{"key":"23740_CR14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"257","DOI":"10.1039\/d4im00106k","volume":"3","author":"Y Ni","year":"2025","unstructured":"Ni, Y. et al. Catalysis in sustainable energy resources: Overview studies of hydrogen, methane, biomass and plastics. Ind. Chem. Mater. 3, 257\u2013276. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1039\/d4im00106k (2025).","journal-title":"Ind. Chem. Mater."},{"key":"23740_CR15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.synthmet.2024.117757","volume":"309","author":"S Iqbal","year":"2024","unstructured":"Iqbal, S. et al. A versatile GdFeO\u2083\/NiO@g-C\u2083N\u2084 ternary hetero-structure photocatalyst for effective photo-degradation and adsorption of tetracycline and ciprofloxacin from wastewater. Synth. Met. 309, 117757. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.synthmet.2024.117757 (2024).","journal-title":"Synth. Met."},{"key":"23740_CR16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"7329","DOI":"10.2147\/IJN.S265934","volume":"15","author":"MU Munir","year":"2020","unstructured":"Munir, M. U., Ahmed, A., Usman, M. & Salman, S. Recent advances in nanotechnology-aided materials in combating microbial resistance and functioning as antibiotics substitutes. Int. J. Nanomed. 15, 7329\u20137358. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2147\/IJN.S265934 (2020).","journal-title":"Int. J. Nanomed."},{"issue":"7","key":"23740_CR17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"741","DOI":"10.3390\/catal12070741","volume":"12","author":"Z Masood","year":"2022","unstructured":"Masood, Z. et al. Application of nanocatalysts in advanced oxidation processes for wastewater purification: Challenges and future prospects. Catalysts 12(7), 741. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/catal12070741 (2022).","journal-title":"Catalysts"},{"issue":"5","key":"23740_CR18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"446","DOI":"10.3390\/biomimetics8050446","volume":"8","author":"S Jeyachandran","year":"2023","unstructured":"Jeyachandran, S. et al. Recent development and application of \u201cnanozyme\u201d artificial enzymes\u2014A review. Biomimetics 8(5), 446. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/biomimetics8050446 (2023).","journal-title":"Biomimetics"},{"key":"23740_CR19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jwpe.2025.107167","volume":"71","author":"M Rafiq","year":"2025","unstructured":"Rafiq, M. et al. Highly efficient degradation of norfloxacin by using Co\u2083O\u2084\u2013CeO2 as a heterogeneous catalyst through peroxymonosulfate activation: Characterization, catalytic performance and mechanism. J. Water Process Eng. 71, 107167. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.jwpe.2025.107167 (2025).","journal-title":"J. Water Process Eng."},{"key":"23740_CR20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.susmat.2024.e01185","volume":"43","author":"JP Steffy","year":"2025","unstructured":"Steffy, J. P. et al. Facet engineering in Au nanoparticles buried in Cu2O nanocubes for enhanced catalytic degradation of rhodamine B and larvicidal application. Sustain. Mater. Technol. 43, e01185. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.susmat.2024.e01185 (2025).","journal-title":"Sustain. Mater. Technol."},{"key":"23740_CR21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jwpe.2025.107336","volume":"71","author":"T Jiteshwaran","year":"2025","unstructured":"Jiteshwaran, T. et al. In situ growth of carbon quantum dots on acid\/base 3D Co2VO\u2084 nanoplates to regulate photocatalysis and peroxymonosulfate activation towards highly efficient degradation of ciprofloxacin. J. Water Process Eng. 71, 107336. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.jwpe.2025.107336 (2025).","journal-title":"J. Water Process Eng."},{"key":"23740_CR22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.surfin.2024.104788","volume":"52","author":"MA Alotaibi","year":"2024","unstructured":"Alotaibi, M. A., Alharthi, A. I., Ahmed, A. & Khalid, A. Highly efficient degradation of moxifloxacin through heterogeneous activation of peroxymonosulfate using Co\u2083O\u2084\u2013g\u2013C\u2083N\u2084 composites: Optimization of interfering factors. Surf. Interfaces 52, 104788. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.surfin.2024.104788 (2024).","journal-title":"Surf. Interfaces"},{"key":"23740_CR23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.1007\/s10876-024-02732-8","volume":"36","author":"S Ghasemi","year":"2025","unstructured":"Ghasemi, S. & Nabizadeh Chianeh, F. Synthesis of iron and cobalt oxide nanocatalysts with various molar ratios and their application for antibiotic removal from aqueous solutions. J. Clust. Sci. 36, 21. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s10876-024-02732-8 (2025).","journal-title":"J. Clust. Sci."},{"key":"23740_CR24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chemosphere.2022.134131","volume":"297","author":"H Wang","year":"2022","unstructured":"Wang, H. et al. H2O2 activation over Co substitution in Fe\u2081\u208b\u2093S for tetracycline degradation: Effect of Co substitution. Chemosphere 297, 134131. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.chemosphere.2022.134131 (2022).","journal-title":"Chemosphere"},{"issue":"2","key":"23740_CR25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"408","DOI":"10.3390\/s21020408","volume":"21","author":"ELS Wong","year":"2021","unstructured":"Wong, E. L. S., Vuong, K. Q. & Chow, E. Nanozymes for environmental pollutant monitoring and remediation. Sensors 21(2), 408. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s21020408 (2021).","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"issue":"8","key":"23740_CR26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2045","DOI":"10.3390\/nano11082045","volume":"11","author":"IMF Cardoso","year":"2021","unstructured":"Cardoso, I. M. F., Cardoso, R. M. F. & da Silva, J. C. G. E. Advanced oxidation processes coupled with nanomaterials for water treatment. Nanomaterials 11(8), 2045. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/nano11082045 (2021).","journal-title":"Nanomaterials"},{"key":"23740_CR27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"161","DOI":"10.1016\/0022-1759(80)90340-3","volume":"38","author":"P Edgar","year":"1980","unstructured":"Edgar, P. & Yona, K. A simple colorimetric method for the measurement of hydrogen peroxide produced by cells in culture. J. Immunol. Methods 38, 161\u2013170. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/0022-1759(80)90340-3 (1980).","journal-title":"J. Immunol. Methods"},{"key":"23740_CR28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4629","DOI":"10.1007\/s00604-017-2509-4","volume":"184","author":"H Yang","year":"2017","unstructured":"Yang, H. et al. A bimetallic (Co\/2Fe) metal-organic framework with oxidase and peroxidase mimicking activity for colorimetric detection of hydrogen peroxide. Microchim. Acta 184, 4629\u20134635. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s00604-017-2509-4 (2017).","journal-title":"Microchim. Acta"},{"key":"23740_CR29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"584","DOI":"10.3390\/s16040584","volume":"16","author":"J Sun","year":"2016","unstructured":"Sun, J., Li, C., Qi, Y., Guo, S. & Liang, X. Optimizing colorimetric assay based on V2O\u2085 nanozymes for sensitive detection of H2O2 and glucose. Sensors 16, 584. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s16040584 (2016).","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"23740_CR30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2201","DOI":"10.7150\/thno.39621","volume":"10","author":"W Liu","year":"2020","unstructured":"Liu, W. et al. Self-activated in vivo therapeutic cascade of erythrocyte membrane-cloaked iron-mineralized enzymes. Theranostics 10, 2201\u20132214. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.7150\/thno.39621 (2020).","journal-title":"Theranostics"},{"key":"23740_CR31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jallcom.2024.174283","volume":"989","author":"MR Rajeshwari","year":"2024","unstructured":"Rajeshwari, M. R. et al. Integration of Ag2S QDs in 3D Zn\u2083V2O\u2088 nanoflower for visible light driven effective photocatalytic degradation of rifampicin: Insights into preparation, mechanism and by-product toxicity evaluation. J. Alloys Compd. 989, 174283. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.jallcom.2024.174283 (2024).","journal-title":"J. Alloys Compd."},{"key":"23740_CR32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"11983","DOI":"10.1007\/s13399-022-02305-7","volume":"13","author":"A Rahmani","year":"2023","unstructured":"Rahmani, A. et al. Effective degradation of amoxicillin using peroxymonosulfate activated with MWCNTs-CuNiFe2O\u2084 as a new catalyst: Optimization, degradation pathway, and toxicity assessment. Biomass Convers. Biorefin. 13, 11983\u201311996. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s13399-022-02305-7 (2023).","journal-title":"Biomass Convers. Biorefin."},{"key":"23740_CR33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"871","DOI":"10.2116\/analsci.24.871","volume":"24","author":"JL Rufino","year":"2008","unstructured":"Rufino, J. L., Pezza, H. R. & Pezza, L. Flow-injection spectrophotometric determination of azithromycin in pharmaceutical formulations using p-chloranil in the presence of hydrogen peroxide. Anal. Sci. 24, 871\u2013876. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2116\/analsci.24.871 (2008).","journal-title":"Anal. Sci."},{"key":"23740_CR34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"466","DOI":"10.1007\/s11270-022-05946-6","volume":"233","author":"E Sanches-Sim\u00f5es","year":"2022","unstructured":"Sanches-Sim\u00f5es, E. et al. Metronidazole degradation by physico-chemical and advanced oxidative processes: influence of pH and nTiO2-functionalized macroporous support. Water Air. Soil Pollut. 233, 466. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s11270-022-05946-6 (2022).","journal-title":"Water Air. Soil Pollut."},{"issue":"12","key":"23740_CR35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.heliyon.2022.e12644","volume":"8","author":"Y Zhu","year":"2022","unstructured":"Zhu, Y. et al. ZnO\/Cu2O\/g-C\u2083N\u2084 heterojunctions with enhanced photocatalytic activity for removal of hazardous antibiotics. Heliyon 8(12), e12644. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.heliyon.2022.e12644 (2022).","journal-title":"Heliyon"},{"key":"23740_CR36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"164","DOI":"10.1007\/s13201-024-02223-1","volume":"14","author":"S Goodarzi","year":"2024","unstructured":"Goodarzi, S. et al. Penicillin removal from the aqueous environment based on AOPs\/challenges and outlook: A review. Appl. Water Sci. 14, 164. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s13201-024-02223-1 (2024).","journal-title":"Appl. Water Sci."},{"issue":"5","key":"23740_CR37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"144","DOI":"10.3390\/separations11050144","volume":"11","author":"X Mao","year":"2024","unstructured":"Mao, X., Ou, M., Zhao, W., Yu, S. & Xu, H. Degradation of levofloxacin by electroactivated sodium persulfate on carbon cloth cathode modified with cerium-based metal organic frameworks (Ce-MOF) derivatives. Separations 11(5), 144. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/separations11050144 (2024).","journal-title":"Separations"},{"issue":"114","key":"23740_CR38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"69","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clay.2015.05.010","volume":"1","author":"ME Jalil","year":"2015","unstructured":"Jalil, M. E., Baschini, M. & Sapag, K. Influence of pH and antibiotic solubility on the removal of ciprofloxacin from aqueous media using montmorillonite. Appl. Clay Sci. 1(114), 69\u201376 (2015).","journal-title":"Appl. Clay Sci."},{"key":"23740_CR39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"8135608","DOI":"10.1155\/2016\/8135608","volume":"2016","author":"I Ahmad","year":"2016","unstructured":"Ahmad, I., Ahmed, S., Anwar, Z., Sheraz, M. A. & Sikorski, M. Photostability and photostabilization of drugs and drug products. J. Drug Deliv. 2016, 8135608. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1155\/2016\/8135608 (2016).","journal-title":"J. Drug Deliv."},{"issue":"30","key":"23740_CR40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4302","DOI":"10.1002\/anie.200462544","volume":"44","author":"DG Blackmond","year":"2005","unstructured":"Blackmond, D. G. Reaction progress kinetic analysis: A powerful methodology for mechanistic studies of complex catalytic reactions. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 44(30), 4302\u20134320. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/anie.200462544 (2005).","journal-title":"Angew. Chem. Int. Ed."},{"issue":"13","key":"23740_CR41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"5995","DOI":"10.7150\/thno.73681","volume":"12","author":"Y Zhang","year":"2022","unstructured":"Zhang, Y. et al. Emerging nanozyme-based multimodal synergistic therapies in combating bacterial infections. Theranostics 12(13), 5995\u20136020. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.7150\/thno.73681 (2022).","journal-title":"Theranostics"},{"key":"23740_CR42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"62","DOI":"10.3389\/fenvs.2020.00062","volume":"8","author":"J Li","year":"2020","unstructured":"Li, J. et al. Design and synthesis of a biochar-supported nano manganese dioxide composite for antibiotics removal from aqueous solution. Front. Environ. Sci. 8, 62. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fenvs.2020.00062 (2020).","journal-title":"Front. Environ. Sci."},{"key":"23740_CR43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enmm.2023.100863","volume":"20","author":"K Bano","year":"2023","unstructured":"Bano, K. et al. Fabrication of CuO\/ZnO heterojunction photocatalyst for efficient photocatalytic degradation of tetracycline and ciprofloxacin under direct sunlight. Environ. Nanotechnol. Monit. Manag. 20, 100863. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.enmm.2023.100863 (2023).","journal-title":"Environ. Nanotechnol. Monit. Manag."},{"key":"23740_CR44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"649","DOI":"10.1007\/s13399-021-02279-y","volume":"14","author":"M Yilmaz","year":"2024","unstructured":"Yilmaz, M. et al. Synthesis of activated carbon from Lemna minor plant and magnetized with iron (III) oxide magnetic nanoparticles and its application in removal of ciprofloxacin. Biomass Convers. Biorefin. 14, 649\u2013662. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s13399-021-02279-y (2024).","journal-title":"Biomass Convers. Biorefin."},{"issue":"8","key":"23740_CR45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4793","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph19084793","volume":"19","author":"Y Yu","year":"2022","unstructured":"Yu, Y., Liu, K., Zhang, Y., Xing, X. & Li, H. High photocatalytic activity of g-C\u2083N\u2084\/La-N-TiO2 composite with nanoscale heterojunctions for degradation of ciprofloxacin. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 19(8), 4793. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijerph19084793 (2022).","journal-title":"Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health"},{"key":"23740_CR46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chemosphere.2023.140181","volume":"342","author":"V Subhiksha","year":"2023","unstructured":"Subhiksha, V. et al. Congregating Ag into \u03b3-Bi2O\u2083 coupled with CoFe2O\u2084 for enhanced visible light photocatalytic degradation of ciprofloxacin, Cr(VI) reduction and genotoxicity studies. Chemosphere 342, 140181. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.chemosphere.2023.140181 (2023).","journal-title":"Chemosphere"},{"key":"23740_CR47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ces.2025.121181","volume":"305","author":"ZS Nazeer Ali","year":"2025","unstructured":"Nazeer Ali, Z. S. et al. Construction of di-functional BiOCl\/LaNi\u2084Fe for enhanced photodegradation of levofloxacin under visible light exposure. Chem. Eng. Sci. 305, 121181. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.ces.2025.121181 (2025).","journal-title":"Chem. Eng. Sci."},{"key":"23740_CR48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jwpe.2024.106761","volume":"69","author":"L Sabariselvan","year":"2025","unstructured":"Sabariselvan, L. et al. Engineering sulfur defect rich Vs-ZnS with sulfur vacancies modulated charge transfer for high performance photocatalytic degradation of levofloxacin. J. Water Process Eng. 69, 106761. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.jwpe.2024.106761 (2025).","journal-title":"J. Water Process Eng."},{"key":"23740_CR49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jallcom.2024.174019","volume":"986","author":"L Sruthi","year":"2024","unstructured":"Sruthi, L. et al. In-situ topotactic transition of LaVO\u2084\/Bi\u20812O\u2081\u2087Br2 NCs by unveiling O defects and p-n heterojunction formation for photodegradation of metronidazole: Reactions, pathway and its by-product toxicity evaluation. J. Alloys Compd. 986, 174019. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.jallcom.2024.174019 (2024).","journal-title":"J. Alloys Compd."},{"key":"23740_CR50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jwpe.2024.105325","volume":"62","author":"V Vinotha Sre","year":"2024","unstructured":"Vinotha Sre, V. et al. Unveiling the enhanced photocatalytic degradation of metronidazole over green-synthesized Ag@ZnCdS QDs Schottky heterojunction: Pathway, toxicity evaluation and mechanistic insights. J. Water Process Eng. 62, 105325. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.jwpe.2024.105325 (2024).","journal-title":"J. Water Process Eng."},{"key":"23740_CR51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"31498","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-024-83333-3","volume":"14","author":"M Akbari","year":"2024","unstructured":"Akbari, M. et al. MXene-based composite photocatalysts for efficient degradation of antibiotics in wastewater. Sci. Rep. 14, 31498. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s41598-024-83333-3 (2024).","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"issue":"4","key":"23740_CR52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4644","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jece.2018.06.043","volume":"6","author":"RR Kalantary","year":"2018","unstructured":"Kalantary, R. R., Farzadkia, M., Kermani, M. & Rahmatinia, M. Heterogeneous electro-Fenton process by Nano-Fe3O4 for catalytic degradation of amoxicillin: Process optimization using response surface methodology. J. Environ. Chem. Eng. 6(4), 4644\u20134652 (2018).","journal-title":"J. Environ. Chem. Eng."},{"issue":"7","key":"23740_CR53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"7986","DOI":"10.1021\/acsomega.3c08116","volume":"9","author":"N Zulfiqar","year":"2024","unstructured":"Zulfiqar, N., Nadeem, R. & Musaimi, O. A. I. Photocatalytic degradation of antibiotics via exploitation of a magnetic nanocomposite: A green nanotechnology approach toward drug-contaminated wastewater reclamation. ACS Omega 9(7), 7986\u20138004. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1021\/acsomega.3c08116 (2024).","journal-title":"ACS Omega"},{"issue":"19","key":"23740_CR54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"6831","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules28196831","volume":"28","author":"H Shi","year":"2023","unstructured":"Shi, H. et al. Boosted photocatalytic performance for antibiotics removal with Ag\/PW12\/TiO2 composite: Degradation pathways and toxicity assessment. Molecules 28(19), 6831. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/molecules28196831 (2023).","journal-title":"Molecules"},{"issue":"2","key":"23740_CR55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"850","DOI":"10.3390\/ma16020850","volume":"16","author":"N Apostolescu","year":"2023","unstructured":"Apostolescu, N. et al. Photocatalytic removal of antibiotics from wastewater using the CeO2\/ZnO heterojunction. Materials 16(2), 850. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ma16020850 (2023).","journal-title":"Materials"},{"issue":"15","key":"23740_CR56","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"8130","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms23158130","volume":"23","author":"X Bai","year":"2022","unstructured":"Bai, X. et al. Photocatalytic degradation of some typical antibiotics: Recent advances and future outlooks. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 23(15), 8130. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijms23158130 (2022).","journal-title":"Int. J. Mol. Sci."},{"issue":"3","key":"23740_CR57","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"189","DOI":"10.3390\/catal14030189","volume":"14","author":"NN Roslan","year":"2024","unstructured":"Roslan, N. N. et al. Recent advances in advanced oxidation processes for degrading pharmaceuticals in wastewater\u2014A review. Catalysts 14(3), 189. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/catal14030189 (2024).","journal-title":"Catalysts"}],"container-title":["Scientific Reports"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41598-025-23740-2.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41598-025-23740-2","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41598-025-23740-2.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,14]],"date-time":"2025-11-14T15:32:24Z","timestamp":1763134344000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41598-025-23740-2"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,14]]},"references-count":57,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,12]]}},"alternative-id":["23740"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s41598-025-23740-2","relation":{},"ISSN":["2045-2322"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2045-2322","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,14]]},"assertion":[{"value":"17 June 2025","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"8 October 2025","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"14 November 2025","order":3,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"order":1,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"The authors declare no competing interests.","order":2,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Competing interests"}}],"article-number":"39941"}}