{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,8]],"date-time":"2026-07-08T23:20:08Z","timestamp":1783552808994,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":43,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,3]],"date-time":"2025-11-03T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1762128000000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-nd\/4.0"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,3]],"date-time":"2025-11-03T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1762128000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-nd\/4.0"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sci Rep"],"DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-025-23972-2","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,3]],"date-time":"2025-11-03T10:48:40Z","timestamp":1762166920000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Real-time PQD detection classification and localization using recurrence plots and EfficientNet-SE in solar integrated IEEE 13-bus system"],"prefix":"10.1038","volume":"15","author":[{"given":"Dhanunjayudu","family":"Nasika","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Eswaramoorthy K.","family":"Varadharaj","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mohana Rao","family":"M.","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Krishnaiah","family":"J.","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,3]]},"reference":[{"key":"23972_CR1","volume":"28","author":"P Khetarpal","year":"2020","unstructured":"Khetarpal, P. & Tripathi, M. M. A critical and comprehensive review on power quality disturbance detection and classification. Sustainable Computing: Informatics and Systems 28, 100417 (2020).","journal-title":"Sustainable Computing: Informatics and Systems"},{"issue":"3","key":"23972_CR2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/s41601-023-00312-y","volume":"8","author":"JE Caicedo","year":"2023","unstructured":"Caicedo, J. E. et al. A systematic review of real-time detection and classification of power quality disturbances. Prot. Control Mod. Power Syst. 8(3), 1\u201337 (2023).","journal-title":"Prot. Control Mod. Power Syst."},{"key":"23972_CR3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1126","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apenergy.2018.09.160","volume":"235","author":"S Wang","year":"2019","unstructured":"Wang, S. & Chen, H. A novel deep learning method for the classification of power quality disturbances using deep convolutional neural network. Appl. Energy 235, 1126\u20131140 (2019).","journal-title":"Appl. Energy"},{"key":"23972_CR4","first-page":"1","volume":"71","author":"CH Cui","year":"2022","unstructured":"Cui, C. H., Duan, Y. J. V., Hu, H. L., Wang, L. & Liu, Q. Detection and classification of multiple power quality disturbances using Stockwell transform and deep learning. IEEE Trans. Instrum. Meas. 71, 1\u201312 (2022).","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Instrum. Meas."},{"issue":"10","key":"23972_CR5","first-page":"3184","volume":"40","author":"JM Huang","year":"2016","unstructured":"Huang, J. M., Ju, H. Z. & Li, X. M. Classification for hybrid power quality disturbance based on STFT and its spectral kurtosis. Power Syst. Technol. 40(10), 3184\u20133191 (2016).","journal-title":"Power Syst. Technol."},{"issue":"24","key":"23972_CR6","first-page":"8372","volume":"41","author":"BQ Yin","year":"2021","unstructured":"Yin, B. Q., Chen, Q. B. & Li, B. A new method for identification and classification of power quality disturbance based on modified Kaiser window fast S-transform and LightGBM. Proc. CSEE 41(24), 8372\u20138383 (2021).","journal-title":"Proc. CSEE"},{"issue":"11","key":"23972_CR7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"9715","DOI":"10.1109\/TIE.2019.2952823","volume":"67","author":"Q Tang","year":"2020","unstructured":"Tang, Q., Qiu, W. & Zhou, Y. C. Classification of complex power quality disturbances using optimized S-transform and kernel SVM. IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron. 67(11), 9715\u20139723 (2020).","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron."},{"issue":"1","key":"23972_CR8","first-page":"232","volume":"37","author":"JZ Wu","year":"2022","unstructured":"Wu, J. Z., Mei, F., Zhen, J. Y., Zhang, C. Y. & Miao, H. Y. Recognition of multiple power quality disturbances based on modified empirical wavelet transform and XGBoost. Trans. China Electrotech. Soc. 37(1), 232\u2013243 (2022).","journal-title":"Trans. China Electrotech. Soc."},{"issue":"3","key":"23972_CR9","first-page":"776","volume":"37","author":"NT Huang","year":"2017","unstructured":"Huang, N. T., Peng, H. & Cai, G. W. Feature selection and optimal decision tree construction of complex power quality disturbances. Proc. CSEE 37(3), 776\u2013785 (2017).","journal-title":"Proc. CSEE"},{"issue":"4","key":"23972_CR10","first-page":"150","volume":"44","author":"DQ Li","year":"2020","unstructured":"Li, D. Q. et al. Deep belief network based method for feature extraction and source identification of voltage sag. Automat. Electr. Power Syst. 44(4), 150\u2013160 (2020).","journal-title":"Automat. Electr. Power Syst."},{"issue":"2017","key":"23972_CR11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"246","DOI":"10.1016\/j.measurement.2016.10.013","volume":"95","author":"S Khokhar","year":"2017","unstructured":"Khokhar, S., Zin, A. A., Memon, A. P. & Mokhtar, A. S. A new optimal feature selection algorithm for classification of power quality disturbances using discrete wavelet transform and probabilistic neural network. Measurement 95(2017), 246\u2013259. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.measurement.2016.10.013 (2017).","journal-title":"Measurement"},{"issue":"8","key":"23972_CR12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2408","DOI":"10.13335\/j.1000-3673.pst.2017.0663","volume":"42","author":"H Wang","year":"2018","unstructured":"Wang, H., Wang, P., Liu, T. & Zhang, B. Power quality disturbance classification based on growing and pruning optimal RBF neural network. Power Syst. Technol. 42(8), 2408\u20132415. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.13335\/j.1000-3673.pst.2017.0663 (2018).","journal-title":"Power Syst. Technol."},{"issue":"11","key":"23972_CR13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2025","DOI":"10.1162\/neco_a_01228","volume":"31","author":"A Ahmadi","year":"2019","unstructured":"Ahmadi, A. & Tani, J. A novel predictive-coding-inspired variational RNN model for online prediction and recognition. Neural Comput. 31(11), 2025\u20132074 (2019).","journal-title":"Neural Comput."},{"key":"23972_CR14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1126","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apenergy.2018.09.160","volume":"235","author":"S Wang","year":"2019","unstructured":"Wang, S. & Chen, H. A novel deep learning method for the classification of power quality disturbances using deep convolutional neural network. Appl. Energy 235, 1126\u20131140 (2019).","journal-title":"Appl. Energy"},{"key":"23972_CR15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eswa.2021.115023","volume":"178","author":"H Sindi","year":"2021","unstructured":"Sindi, H., Nour, M., Rawa, M., \u00d6zt\u00fcrk, \u015e & Polat, K. An adaptive deep learning framework to classify unknown composite power quality event using known single power quality events. Expert Syst. Appl. 178, 115023 (2021).","journal-title":"Expert Syst. Appl."},{"issue":"1","key":"23972_CR16","first-page":"369","volume":"47","author":"CJ He","year":"2023","unstructured":"He, C. J., Li, K. C. & Yang, W. W. Power quality compound disturbance identification based on dual channel GAF and depth residual network. Power Syst. Technol. 47(1), 369\u2013376 (2023).","journal-title":"Power Syst. Technol."},{"issue":"12","key":"23972_CR17","volume":"31","author":"S Jyoti","year":"2021","unstructured":"Jyoti, S., Basanta, K. P. & Prakash, K. R. Power quality disturbances classification based on Gramian angular summation field method and convolutional neural networks. Int. Trans. Electr. Energy Syst. 31(12), e13222 (2021).","journal-title":"Int. Trans. Electr. Energy Syst."},{"key":"23972_CR18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1328994","DOI":"10.3389\/fenrg.2024.1328994","volume":"12","author":"L Zhou","year":"2024","unstructured":"Zhou, L., Gu, S., Liu, Y. & Zhu, C. A novel recognition method for complex power quality disturbances based on Markov transition field and improved densely connected network. Front. Energy Res. 12, 1328994 (2024).","journal-title":"Front. Energy Res."},{"key":"23972_CR19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Huang, G., Liu, Z., Van Der Maaten, L. & Weinberger, K. Q. Densely connected convolutional networks. In Proc. CVPR, 4700\u20134708 (2017).","DOI":"10.1109\/CVPR.2017.243"},{"key":"23972_CR20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Woo, S., Park, J. P., Lee, J. Y. & Kweon, I. S. CBAM: Convolutional block attention module. In Proc. ECCV, 3\u201319 (2018).","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-01234-2_1"},{"issue":"8","key":"23972_CR21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4481","DOI":"10.1109\/TII.2019.2895054","volume":"15","author":"Y Deng","year":"2019","unstructured":"Deng, Y., Wang, L., Jia, H., Tong, X. & Li, F. A sequence-to-sequence deep learning architecture based on bidirectional GRU for type recognition and time location of combined power quality disturbance. IEEE Trans. Ind. Inf. 15(8), 4481\u20134493. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/TII.2019.2895054 (2019).","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Ind. Inf."},{"issue":"11","key":"23972_CR22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"97","DOI":"10.19783\/j.cnki.pspc.200997","volume":"49","author":"W Zheng","year":"2021","unstructured":"Zheng, W., Lin, R. & Wang, J. Power quality disturbance classification based on GAF and a convolutional neural network. Power Syst. Prot. Control 49(11), 97\u2013104. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.19783\/j.cnki.pspc.200997 (2021).","journal-title":"Power Syst. Prot. Control"},{"key":"23972_CR23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/ACEEE56193.2022.9851835","author":"W Xu","year":"2022","unstructured":"Xu, W., Duan, C., Wang, X. & Dai, J. Power quality disturbance identification method based on improved fully convolutional network. Proc. IEEE Asia Conf. Energy Electr. Eng. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/ACEEE56193.2022.9851835 (2022).","journal-title":"Proc. IEEE Asia Conf. Energy Electr. Eng."},{"key":"23972_CR24","unstructured":"IEA, Renewables 2020\u2014Analysis. International Energy Agency, [Online]. Available: https:\/\/www.iea.org\/reports\/renewables-2020. [Accessed: Jul. 20, 2023]."},{"key":"23972_CR25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Basso, T. IEEE 1547 and 2030 Standards for Distributed Energy Resources Interconnection and Interoperability with the Electricity Grid. NREL Report No. NREL\/TP-5D00-63157, Dec. (2014).","DOI":"10.2172\/1166677"},{"key":"23972_CR26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rser.2021.111854","volume":"154","author":"MA Khan","year":"2022","unstructured":"Khan, M. A., Haque, A., Kurukuru, V. S. B. & Saad, M. Islanding detection techniques for grid-connected photovoltaic systems-A review. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 154, 111854 (2022).","journal-title":"Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev."},{"issue":"11","key":"23972_CR27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"12710","DOI":"10.1109\/TPEL.2021.3083366","volume":"36","author":"CY Tang","year":"2021","unstructured":"Tang, C. Y., Chen, P. T. & Jheng, J. H. Bidirectional power flow control and hybrid charging strategies for three-phase PV power and energy storage systems. IEEE Trans. Power Electron. 36(11), 12710\u201312720 (2021).","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Power Electron."},{"key":"23972_CR28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Begovic, M. Sustainable energy technologies and distributed generation. In: Proc. 2001 IEEE PES Summer Meeting, 540\u2013545 (2001).","DOI":"10.1109\/PESS.2001.970089"},{"key":"23972_CR29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Daly, P. A. & Morrison, J. Understanding the potential benefits of distributed generation on power delivery systems. In Proc. 2001 Rural Electr. Power Conf., A2\/1\u2013A2\/13 (2001).","DOI":"10.1109\/REPCON.2001.949510"},{"issue":"5","key":"23972_CR30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"664","DOI":"10.1016\/j.solener.2008.10.020","volume":"83","author":"SK Kim","year":"2009","unstructured":"Kim, S. K., Jeon, J. H., Cho, C. H., Kim, E. S. & Ahn, J. B. Modeling and simulation of a grid-connected PV generation system for electromagnetic transient analysis. Solar Energy 83(5), 664\u2013678 (2009).","journal-title":"Solar Energy"},{"key":"23972_CR31","volume":"2014","author":"AFA Kadir","year":"2014","unstructured":"Kadir, A. F. A., Khatib, T. & Elmenreich, W. Integrating photovoltaic systems in power system: Power quality impacts and optimal planning challenges. Int. J. Photoenergy 2014, 321826 (2014).","journal-title":"Int. J. Photoenergy"},{"key":"23972_CR32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"140","DOI":"10.1016\/j.renene.2011.11.026","volume":"43","author":"K Fekete","year":"2012","unstructured":"Fekete, K., Klaic, Z. & Majdandzic, L. Expansion of the residential photovoltaic systems and its harmonic impact on the distribution grid. Renew. Energy 43, 140\u2013148 (2012).","journal-title":"Renew. Energy"},{"key":"23972_CR33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"560","DOI":"10.1016\/j.protcy.2015.10.055","volume":"21","author":"R Kappagantu","year":"2015","unstructured":"Kappagantu, R., Daniel, S. A. & Yadav, A. Power quality analysis of smart grid pilot project, Puducherry. Procedia Technol. 21, 560\u2013568 (2015).","journal-title":"Procedia Technol."},{"issue":"9","key":"23972_CR34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.3390\/en9090739","volume":"9","author":"R Pinto","year":"2016","unstructured":"Pinto, R., Mariano, S., Calado, M. D. R. & De Souza, J. F. Impact of rural grid-connected photovoltaic generation systems on power quality. Energies 9(9), 9 (2016).","journal-title":"Energies"},{"key":"23972_CR35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enconman.2012.05.008","volume":"64","author":"J Urbanetz","year":"2012","unstructured":"Urbanetz, J., Braun, P. & R\u00fcther, R. Power quality analysis of grid-connected solar photovoltaic generators in Brazil. Energy Convers. Manage. 64, 8\u201314 (2012).","journal-title":"Energy Convers. Manage."},{"issue":"1","key":"23972_CR36","first-page":"121","volume":"5","author":"KW Kow","year":"2015","unstructured":"Kow, K. W., Wong, Y. W. & Rajkumar, R. K. Power quality analysis for PV grid connected system using PSCAD\/EMTDC. Int. J. Renew. Energy Res. 5(1), 121\u2013132 (2015).","journal-title":"Int. J. Renew. Energy Res."},{"key":"23972_CR37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1261","DOI":"10.1016\/j.energy.2017.05.088","volume":"139","author":"S Seme","year":"2017","unstructured":"Seme, S., Luka\u010d, N., \u0160tumberger, B. & Had\u017eiselimovi\u0107, M. Power quality experimental analysis of grid-connected photovoltaic systems in urban distribution networks. Energy 139, 1261\u20131266 (2017).","journal-title":"Energy"},{"issue":"7","key":"23972_CR38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"168781402094467","DOI":"10.1177\/1687814020944670","volume":"12","author":"AA Alhussainy","year":"2020","unstructured":"Alhussainy, A. A. & Alquthami, T. S. Power quality analysis of a large grid-tied solar photovoltaic system. Adv. Mech. Eng. 12(7), 1687814020944670 (2020).","journal-title":"Adv. Mech. Eng."},{"key":"23972_CR39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.egyr.2015.12.002","volume":"2","author":"B Plangklang","year":"2016","unstructured":"Plangklang, B., Thanomsat, N. & Phuksamak, T. A verification analysis of power quality and energy yield of a large scale PV rooftop. Energy Reports 2, 1\u20137 (2016).","journal-title":"Energy Reports"},{"issue":"6","key":"23972_CR40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1461","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ymssp.2004.12.006","volume":"20","author":"Y Dong","year":"2006","unstructured":"Dong, Y., Sun, Z. & Jia, H. A cosine similarity-based negative selection algorithm for time series novelty detection. Mech. Syst. Signal Process. 20(6), 1461\u20131472 (2006).","journal-title":"Mech. Syst. Signal Process."},{"key":"23972_CR41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Selvaraju, R. R., Cogswell, M., Das, A., Vedantam, R., Parikh, D. & Batra, D. Grad-CAM: Visual explanations from deep networks via gradient-based localization. In Proc. ICCV, 618\u2013626 (2020).","DOI":"10.1109\/ICCV.2017.74"},{"issue":"3","key":"23972_CR42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"975","DOI":"10.1109\/59.119237","volume":"6","author":"WH Kersting","year":"1991","unstructured":"Kersting, W. H. Radial distribution test feeders. IEEE Trans. Power Syst. 6(3), 975\u2013985 (1991).","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Power Syst."},{"key":"23972_CR43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"145713","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2020.3014288","volume":"8","author":"M Bajaj","year":"2020","unstructured":"Bajaj, M. et al. Power quality assessment of distorted distribution networks incorporating renewable distributed generation systems based on the analytic hierarchy process. IEEE Access 8, 145713\u2013145737 (2020).","journal-title":"IEEE Access"}],"container-title":["Scientific Reports"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41598-025-23972-2.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41598-025-23972-2","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41598-025-23972-2.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,3]],"date-time":"2025-11-03T23:02:56Z","timestamp":1762210976000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41598-025-23972-2"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,3]]},"references-count":43,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,12]]}},"alternative-id":["23972"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s41598-025-23972-2","relation":{},"ISSN":["2045-2322"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2045-2322","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,3]]},"assertion":[{"value":"28 June 2025","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"9 October 2025","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"3 November 2025","order":3,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"order":1,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"The authors declare no competing interests.","order":2,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Competing interests"}}],"article-number":"38434"}}