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In this cross-sectional study, we assessed the oral health status in adults living in urban Ndola (\n                    <jats:italic>N<\/jats:italic>\n                    \u2009=\u2009188) and rural Mansa (\n                    <jats:italic>N<\/jats:italic>\n                    \u2009=\u2009211) where participants were interviewed on oral health, followed by an oral examination. The chi-square test and logistic regression analysis were used to examine associations between socio-demographic factors, oral disease risk factors, and oral disease presence across urban and rural participants. Dental caries occurred in 72.9% of urban and 47.9% of rural participants (\n                    <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\n                    \u2009&lt;\u20090.0001). DMFT was 4.0 in urban participants compared to 2.2 in rural participants (\n                    <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\n                    \u2009&lt;\u20090.0001). Gingivitis occurred in 84.5% and 88.1% of urban and rural participants, respectively (\n                    <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\n                    \u2009=\u20090.297). Age and habitat were factors significantly associated with dental caries, DMFT, and gingivitis. Smoking and alcohol use were significantly associated with gingivitis, while age, education, smoking, and alcohol use were factors significantly associated with periodontal disease. Only three study participants in the rural population were diagnosed with leukoplakia. In conclusion, dental caries was particularly common in the urban population in Zambia, while gingivitis was high in both the urban and rural populations. Unmet dental care calls for broad interventions to address oral diseases in Zambia.\n                  <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-025-24683-4","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,21]],"date-time":"2025-10-21T08:15:30Z","timestamp":1761034530000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["A community cross-sectional study on oral health status among rural and urban inhabitants of Zambia"],"prefix":"10.1038","volume":"15","author":[{"given":"Chrispinus Hakimu","family":"Mumena","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"G\u00f6ran","family":"Kjeller","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Bengt","family":"Hass\u00e9us","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Daniel","family":"Giglio","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,21]]},"reference":[{"key":"24683_CR1","unstructured":"WHO. 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