{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,27]],"date-time":"2026-10-27T01:18:47Z","timestamp":1793063927644,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":40,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,24]],"date-time":"2025-11-24T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1763942400000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,24]],"date-time":"2025-11-24T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1763942400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"}],"funder":[{"name":"NTNU Norwegian University of Science and Technology"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sci Rep"],"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>Cold bonding between dissimilar metals and alloys offers several benefits, such as the absence of soft heat-affected zones and thick intermetallic layers with properties that differ from those of the base metals. At room temperature, thermally driven diffusion processes are negligible, but we demonstrate here that mechanically strong bonds are still feasible through high plastic deformation and high strain rates. If the strain rate is high and the temperature is kept low to avoid significant annihilation of vacancies, mechanically strong bonds involving intermetallic compound formation can still form through vacancy-driven diffusion across the contact interface. In the present investigation, two different experimental setups were employed to demonstrate strong bonding between copper and aluminium at room temperature, using phenomenological equations for excess vacancy formation and diffusion to highlight the underlying bonding mechanisms involved. Transmission electron microscopy is used to verify the bonding mechanisms.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-025-25620-1","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,24]],"date-time":"2025-11-24T12:55:28Z","timestamp":1763988928000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":7,"title":["Cold bonding of aluminium to copper by deformation-enhanced diffusion"],"prefix":"10.1038","volume":"15","author":[{"given":"Per Erik","family":"Vullum","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ambra","family":"Celotto","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"\u00d8ystein","family":"Grong","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Randi","family":"Holmestad","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,24]]},"reference":[{"key":"25620_CR1","unstructured":"Welding Handbook 9 edn, Vol. 3, Welding processes - Part 2 (American Welding Society, Miami 2007)."},{"key":"25620_CR2","unstructured":"de Bastos Pereira, A. M. & Gomes da Silva, F. J. (eds.) Handbook of Welding-Processes, Control and Simulations. (Nova Science Publishers, New York, 2021)."},{"key":"25620_CR3","unstructured":"Grong, \u00d8. Metallurgical modelling of welding 2nd edn. (Institute of Materials, London, 1997)."},{"key":"25620_CR4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"980","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pmatsci.2008.05.001","volume":"53","author":"R Nandan","year":"2008","unstructured":"Nandan, R., DebRoy, T. & Bhadeshia, H. K. D. H. Recent advances in friction-stir welding \u2013 process, weldment structure and properties. Prog. Mater. Sci. 53, 980\u20131023 (2008).","journal-title":"Prog. Mater. Sci."},{"key":"25620_CR5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.1179\/174328009X411136","volume":"54","author":"PL Threadgill","year":"2009","unstructured":"Threadgill, P. L., Leonard, A. J., Shercliff, H. R. & Withers, P. J. Friction stir welding of aluminium alloys. Int. Mater. Rev. 54, 49\u201393 (2009).","journal-title":"Int. Mater. Rev."},{"key":"25620_CR6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2845","DOI":"10.1007\/s00170-019-03353-6","volume":"102","author":"Y Fang","year":"2019","unstructured":"Fang, Y., Jiang, X., Mo, D., Zhu, D. & Luo, Z. A review on dissimilar metals welding methods and mechanisms. Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol. 102, 2845\u20132863 (2019).","journal-title":"Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol."},{"key":"25620_CR7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.1186\/s40712-014-0021-8","volume":"9","author":"B Mvola","year":"2014","unstructured":"Mvola, B., Kah, P. & Martikainen, J. Welding of dissimilar non-ferrous metals by GMAW processes. Int. J. Mech. Mater. Eng. 9, 21 (2014).","journal-title":"Int. J. Mech. Mater. Eng."},{"key":"25620_CR8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1361\/10599490522310","volume":"14","author":"A Elrefaey","year":"2005","unstructured":"Elrefaey, A., Gouda, M., Takahashi, M. & Ikeuchi, K. Characterization of aluminium\/steel lap joint by friction stir welding. J. Mater. Eng. Perform. 14, 10\u201317 (2005).","journal-title":"J. Mater. Eng. Perform."},{"key":"25620_CR9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4630","DOI":"10.1016\/j.msea.2011.02.057","volume":"528","author":"H Springer","year":"2011","unstructured":"Springer, H., Kostka, A., dos Santos, J. F. & Raabe, D. Influence of intermetallic phases and Kirkendall-porosity on the mechanical properties of joints between steel and aluminium alloys. Mater. Sci. Eng. A 528, 4630\u20134642 (2011).","journal-title":"Mater. Sci. Eng. A"},{"key":"25620_CR10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"129","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jmatprotec.2012.09.016","volume":"213","author":"I Galvao","year":"2013","unstructured":"Galvao, I., Leal, R. M., Rodrigues, D. M. & Loureiro, A. Influence of tool shoulder geometry on properties of friction stir welds in thin copper sheets. J. Mater. Process. Technol. 213, 129\u2013135 (2013).","journal-title":"J. Mater. Process. Technol."},{"key":"25620_CR11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3091","DOI":"10.1007\/s11661-015-2909-1","volume":"46A","author":"P Xue","year":"2015","unstructured":"Xue, P., Xiao, B. L. & Ma, Z. Y. Enhanced mechanical properties of friction stir welded dissimilar Al\u2013Cu joint by intermetallic compounds. Metall. Mater. Trans. A. 46A, 3091\u20133103 (2015).","journal-title":"Metall. Mater. Trans. A."},{"key":"25620_CR12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"113","DOI":"10.1016\/j.msea.2009.07.006","volume":"526","author":"U Dressler","year":"2009","unstructured":"Dressler, U., Biallas, G. & Alfaro Mercado, U. Friction stir welding of titanium alloy TiAl6V4 to aluminium alloy AA2024-T3. Mater. Sci. Eng. A. 526, 113\u2013117 (2009).","journal-title":"Mater. Sci. Eng. A."},{"key":"25620_CR13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"172","DOI":"10.1016\/j.matlet.2017.07.081","volume":"207","author":"Y Huang","year":"2017","unstructured":"Huang, Y., Lv, Z., Wan, L., Shen, J. & dos Santos, J. F. A new method of hybrid friction stir welding assisted by friction surfacing for joining dissimilar Ti\/Al alloy. Mater. Lett. 207, 172\u2013175 (2017).","journal-title":"Mater. Lett."},{"key":"25620_CR14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.matchar.2020.110761","volume":"173","author":"T Bergh","year":"2021","unstructured":"Bergh, T. et al. Microstructural and mechanical characterisation of a second generation hybrid metal extrusion & bonding aluminium-steel butt joint. Mater. Charact. 173, 110761 (2021).","journal-title":"Mater. Charact."},{"key":"25620_CR15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"103","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jmapro.2020.03.050","volume":"55","author":"RP Mahto","year":"2020","unstructured":"Mahto, R. P. & Pal, S. K. Friction stir welding of dissimilar materials: An investigation of microstructure and nano-indentation study. J. Manuf. Process. 55, 103\u2013118 (2020).","journal-title":"J. Manuf. Process."},{"key":"25620_CR16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.msea.2021.140975","volume":"809","author":"L Sandnes","year":"2021","unstructured":"Sandnes, L. et al. Interface microstructure and tensile properties of a third generation aluminium-steel butt weld produced using the hybrid metal extrusion & bonding (HYB) process. Mater. Sci. Eng. A. 809, 140975 (2021).","journal-title":"Mater. Sci. Eng. A."},{"key":"25620_CR17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijfatigue.2021.106586","volume":"155","author":"L Sandnes","year":"2022","unstructured":"Sandnes, L., Welo, T., Grong, \u00d8. & Berto, F. On the fatigue properties of a third generation aluminium-steel butt weld made by hybrid metal extrusion & bonding (HYB). Int. J. Fatigue. 155, 106586 (2022).","journal-title":"Int. J. Fatigue."},{"key":"25620_CR18","first-page":"2682","volume":"54A","author":"T Berg","year":"2023","unstructured":"Berg, T. et al. Multi-material joining of an aluminium alloy to copper, steel and titanium by hybrid metal extrusion & bonding. Metall. Mater. Trans. A. 54A, 2682\u20132702 (2023).","journal-title":"Metall. Mater. Trans. A."},{"key":"25620_CR19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"361","DOI":"10.1007\/s00114-007-0331-2","volume":"95","author":"M Vavelidis","year":"2008","unstructured":"Vavelidis, M. & Andreou, S. Gold and gold working in late bronze age Northern Greece. Naturwissenschaften 95, 361\u2013366 (2008).","journal-title":"Naturwissenschaften"},{"key":"25620_CR20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Desaguliers, J. T. Some experiments concerning the adhesion of lead. Philos. Tran. R. Soc. Lond. 33, 345\u2013347 (1725).","DOI":"10.1098\/rstl.1724.0065"},{"key":"25620_CR21","first-page":"137","volume":"62","author":"N Bay","year":"1983","unstructured":"Bay, N. Mechanisms producing metallic bonds in cold welding. Weld. J. 62, 137\u2013142 (1983).","journal-title":"Weld. J."},{"key":"25620_CR22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bay, N. ASM Handbook, Volume 6A, Welding Fundamentals and Processes, Cold Welding 711\u2013716, (ASM International, Novelty, 2011).","DOI":"10.31399\/asm.hb.v06a.a0005581"},{"key":"25620_CR23","first-page":"26","volume":"91","author":"\u00d8 Grong","year":"2012","unstructured":"Grong, \u00d8. Recent advances in solid-state joining of aluminium. Weld. J. 91, 26\u201333 (2012).","journal-title":"Weld. J."},{"key":"25620_CR24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"76","DOI":"10.1016\/j.msea.2009.04.021","volume":"518","author":"AS Lilleby","year":"2009","unstructured":"Lilleby, A. S., Grong, \u00d8., Hemmer, H. & Erlien, T. Experimental and finite elements studies of the divergent extrusion process under conditions applicable to cold pressure welding of commercial purity aluminium. Mater. Sci. Eng. A. 518, 76\u201383 (2009).","journal-title":"Mater. Sci. Eng. A."},{"key":"25620_CR25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"179","DOI":"10.1016\/j.msea.2009.07.051","volume":"527","author":"AS Lilleby","year":"2009","unstructured":"Lilleby, A. S., Grong, \u00d8. & Hemmer, H. Experimental and finite element simulations of cold pressure welding of aluminium by divergent extrusion. Mater. Sci. Eng. A. 527, 179\u2013186 (2009).","journal-title":"Mater. Sci. Eng. A."},{"key":"25620_CR26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2400388","DOI":"10.1002\/adem.202400388","volume":"26","author":"Y Beygelzimer","year":"2024","unstructured":"Beygelzimer, Y., Gr\u00f6tzinger, K. C., Liewald, M., Estrin, Y. & Kulagin, R. The, \u201cThird Body\u201d approach to joining of metals by simple shear under pressure. Adv. Eng. Mater. 26, 2400388 (2024).","journal-title":"Adv. Eng. Mater."},{"key":"25620_CR27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"211","DOI":"10.1179\/imr.1985.30.1.211","volume":"30","author":"JL Murray","year":"1985","unstructured":"Murray, J. L. The aluminium-copper system. Int. Met. Rev. 30, 211\u2013234 (1985).","journal-title":"Int. Met. Rev."},{"key":"25620_CR28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1186\/s40712-015-0037-8","volume":"10","author":"P Kah","year":"2015","unstructured":"Kah, P., Vimalraj, C., Martikainen, J. & Suoranta, R. Factors influencing Al-Cu weld properties by intermetallic compound formation. Int. J. Mech. Mater. Eng. 10, 10 (2015).","journal-title":"Int. J. Mech. Mater. Eng."},{"key":"25620_CR29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"233","DOI":"10.1016\/S0925-8388(01)00872-6","volume":"319","author":"M Abbasi","year":"2001","unstructured":"Abbasi, M., Karimi Taheri, A. & Salehi, M. T. Growth rate of intermetallic compounds in Al\/Cu bimetal produced by cold roll welding process. J. Alloys Compd. 319, 233\u2013241 (2001).","journal-title":"J. Alloys Compd."},{"key":"25620_CR30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1938","DOI":"10.2320\/matertrans.MER2006371","volume":"48","author":"C-Y Chen","year":"2007","unstructured":"Chen, C.-Y. & Hwang, W.-S. Effect of annealing on the interfacial structure of aluminium-copper joints. Mater. Trans. 48, 1938\u20131947 (2007).","journal-title":"Mater. Trans."},{"key":"25620_CR31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"626","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jmapro.2022.04.029","volume":"79","author":"A Elkjaer","year":"2022","unstructured":"Elkjaer, A., S\u00f8rhaug, J. A., Ringen, G., Bj\u00f8rge, R. & Grong, \u00d8. Electrical and thermal stability of Al-Cu welds: Performance benchmarking of the hybrid metal extrusion and bonding process. J. Manuf. Process. 79, 626\u2013638 (2022).","journal-title":"J. Manuf. Process."},{"key":"25620_CR32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"333","DOI":"10.1007\/s12540-019-00333-z","volume":"26","author":"F-A Hua","year":"2020","unstructured":"Hua, F.-A., Song, H.-W., Sun, T. & Li, J.-P. Interdiffusion based analytical model for growth kinetics of IMC layers at roll bonded Cu\/Al interface during annealing process. Met. Mater. Int. 26, 333\u2013345 (2020).","journal-title":"Met. Mater. Int."},{"key":"25620_CR33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1034","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jmatprotec.2011.01.004","volume":"211","author":"M Zebardast","year":"2011","unstructured":"Zebardast, M. & Karimi Taheri, A. The cold welding of copper to aluminium using equal channel angular extrusion (ECAE) process. J. Mater. Process. Technol. 211, 1034\u20131043 (2011).","journal-title":"J. Mater. Process. Technol."},{"key":"25620_CR34","unstructured":"Celotto, A., Grong, \u00d8., Holmestad, R., S\u00f8rhaug, J. A., Vullum, P. E., Wan, D. & Berto, F. Unconventional use of Ga+ FIB and Xe+ Plasma-FIB for performing and investigating microscale cold-welding of dissimilar aluminium alloys. In First National Junior Scientist Research Conference in Nanoscience and Nanotechnology, Research School TNNN, Trondheim, Norway, 2022-11-30 \u2013 2022-12-02."},{"key":"25620_CR35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2139\/ssrn.5186832","author":"A Celotto","year":"2025","unstructured":"Celotto, A., Holmestad, R., Berto, F. & Vullum, P. E. In-situ microscale cold welding using a focused ion beam-scanning electron microscope. SSRN https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2139\/ssrn.5186832 (2025).","journal-title":"SSRN"},{"key":"25620_CR36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.msea.2024.146279","volume":"897","author":"A Celotto","year":"2024","unstructured":"Celotto, A. et al. Cold butt welding of dissimilar aluminium alloys: Characterization and interface bonding conditions. Mater. Sci. Eng. A. 897, 146279 (2024).","journal-title":"Mater. Sci. Eng. A."},{"key":"25620_CR37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"133","DOI":"10.1016\/0956-7151(94)90056-6","volume":"42","author":"M Militzer","year":"1994","unstructured":"Militzer, M., Sun, W. P. & Jonas, J. J. Modelling the effect of deformation-induced vacancies on segregation and precipitation. Acta Metall. Mater. 42, 133\u2013141 (1994).","journal-title":"Acta Metall. Mater."},{"key":"25620_CR38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"5401","DOI":"10.1007\/s11661-020-05960-5","volume":"51A","author":"JD Robson","year":"2020","unstructured":"Robson, J. D. Deformation enhanced diffusion in aluminium alloys. Metall. Mater. Trans. A. 51A, 5401\u20135413 (2020).","journal-title":"Metall. Mater. Trans. A."},{"key":"25620_CR39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.matdes.2024.112867","volume":"240","author":"JA S\u00f8rhaug","year":"2024","unstructured":"S\u00f8rhaug, J. A. et al. Al-Cu intermetallic phase growth in hybrid metal extrusion & bonding welds exposed to isothermal annealing or direct current cycling. Mater. Des. 240, 112867 (2024).","journal-title":"Mater. Des."},{"key":"25620_CR40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"887","DOI":"10.1016\/j.prostr.2021.10.099","volume":"33","author":"A Celotto","year":"2021","unstructured":"Celotto, A. et al. Preliminary in-situ study of FIB-assisted method for aluminium solid-state welding at the microscale. Procedia Struct. Integr. 33, 887\u2013895 (2021).","journal-title":"Procedia Struct. Integr."}],"container-title":["Scientific Reports"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41598-025-25620-1.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41598-025-25620-1","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41598-025-25620-1.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,29]],"date-time":"2025-11-29T01:03:24Z","timestamp":1764378204000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41598-025-25620-1"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,24]]},"references-count":40,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,12]]}},"alternative-id":["25620"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s41598-025-25620-1","relation":{},"ISSN":["2045-2322"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2045-2322","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,24]]},"assertion":[{"value":"1 July 2025","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"22 October 2025","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"24 November 2025","order":3,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"order":1,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"The authors declare no competing interests.","order":2,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Competing interests"}}],"article-number":"41656"}}