{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,11,2]],"date-time":"2026-11-02T23:02:01Z","timestamp":1793660521328,"version":"4.5.1"},"reference-count":74,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,23]],"date-time":"2025-11-23T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1763856000000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-nd\/4.0"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,29]],"date-time":"2025-12-29T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1766966400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":36,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-nd\/4.0"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sci Rep"],"DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-025-28614-1","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,23]],"date-time":"2025-11-23T13:04:09Z","timestamp":1763903049000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["Air pollution and cognitive function: the potential protective effect of physical activity"],"prefix":"10.1038","volume":"15","author":[{"given":"Lin","family":"Zhu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mingjun","family":"Zou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,23]]},"reference":[{"key":"28614_CR1","unstructured":"Committee on Developing Evidence-Based Standards for Psychosocial Interventions for Mental D, Board on Health Sciences P, Institute of M: The National Academies Collection: Reports funded by National Institutes of Health. In: Psychosocial Interventions for Mental and Substance Use Disorders: A Framework for Establishing Evidence-Based Standards. edn. Edited by England MJ, Butler AS, Gonzalez ML. Washington (DC): National Academies Press (US)"},{"key":"28614_CR2","unstructured":"Copyright 2015 by the National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.; 2015."},{"issue":"1","key":"28614_CR3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.1016\/S1474-4422(19)30290-X","volume":"19","author":"L Jia","year":"2020","unstructured":"Jia, L. et al. Dementia in China: epidemiology, clinical management, and research advances. Lancet Neurol. 19(1), 81\u201392 (2020).","journal-title":"Lancet Neurol."},{"key":"28614_CR4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"463","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jad.2021.08.093","volume":"295","author":"Z Ren","year":"2021","unstructured":"Ren, Z. et al. Associations of body mass index, waist circumference and waist-to-height ratio with cognitive impairment among Chinese older adults: Based on the CLHLS. J Affect Disord 295, 463\u2013470 (2021).","journal-title":"J Affect Disord"},{"issue":"1","key":"28614_CR5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1080\/17441730.2020.1834197","volume":"17","author":"X Peng","year":"2021","unstructured":"Peng, X. Coping with population ageing in mainland China. Asian Popul. Stud. 17(1), 1\u20136 (2021).","journal-title":"Asian Popul. Stud."},{"key":"28614_CR6","unstructured":"Prince M: World Alzheimer report 2015: the global impact of dementia. 2015."},{"issue":"3","key":"28614_CR7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"421","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cger.2014.04.001","volume":"30","author":"J Hugo","year":"2014","unstructured":"Hugo, J. & Ganguli, M. Dementia and cognitive impairment: epidemiology, diagnosis, and treatment. Clin Geriatr Med 30(3), 421\u2013442 (2014).","journal-title":"Clin Geriatr Med"},{"key":"28614_CR8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhazmat.2024.136507","volume":"482","author":"Q Zhao","year":"2025","unstructured":"Zhao, Q., Feng, Q. & Seow, W. J. Impact of air pollution on depressive symptoms and the modifying role of physical activity: Evidence from the CHARLS study. J. Hazard. Mater. 482, 136507 (2025).","journal-title":"J. Hazard. Mater."},{"issue":"21","key":"28614_CR9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2331","DOI":"10.1161\/CIR.0b013e3181dbece1","volume":"121","author":"RD Brook","year":"2010","unstructured":"Brook, R. D. et al. Particulate matter air pollution and cardiovascular disease: An update to the scientific statement from the American Heart Association. Circulation 121(21), 2331\u20132378 (2010).","journal-title":"Circulation"},{"issue":"9","key":"28614_CR10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"506","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tins.2009.05.009","volume":"32","author":"ML Block","year":"2009","unstructured":"Block, M. L. & Calder\u00f3n-Garcidue\u00f1as, L. Air pollution: mechanisms of neuroinflammation and CNS disease. Trends Neurosci 32(9), 506\u2013516 (2009).","journal-title":"Trends Neurosci"},{"issue":"21","key":"28614_CR11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/advs.202101251","volume":"8","author":"YJ Kang","year":"2021","unstructured":"Kang, Y. J., Tan, H. Y., Lee, C. Y. & Cho, H. An Air Particulate Pollutant Induces Neuroinflammation and Neurodegeneration in Human Brain Models. Adv Sci (Weinh) 8(21), e2101251 (2021).","journal-title":"Adv Sci (Weinh)"},{"key":"28614_CR12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"344","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecoenv.2019.02.086","volume":"174","author":"Y Shou","year":"2019","unstructured":"Shou, Y. et al. A review of the possible associations between ambient PM2.5 exposures and the development of Alzheimer\u2019s disease. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf 174, 344\u2013352 (2019).","journal-title":"Ecotoxicol Environ Saf"},{"issue":"9","key":"28614_CR13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"780","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopsych.2022.05.017","volume":"93","author":"YH Ma","year":"2023","unstructured":"Ma, Y. H. et al. Association of Long-term Exposure to Ambient Air Pollution With Cognitive Decline and Alzheimer\u2019s Disease-Related Amyloidosis. Biol Psychiatry 93(9), 780\u2013789 (2023).","journal-title":"Biol Psychiatry"},{"key":"28614_CR14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2022.154297","volume":"828","author":"Y Yao","year":"2022","unstructured":"Yao, Y., Wang, K. & Xiang, H. Association between cognitive function and ambient particulate matters in middle-aged and elderly Chinese adults: Evidence from the China Health and Retirement Longitudinal Study (CHARLS). Sci Total Environ 828, 154297 (2022).","journal-title":"Sci Total Environ"},{"issue":"s1","key":"28614_CR15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"S145","DOI":"10.3233\/JAD-180631","volume":"70","author":"R Peters","year":"2019","unstructured":"Peters, R. et al. Air Pollution and Dementia: A Systematic Review. J Alzheimer\u2019s disease\u202f: JAD 70(s1), S145-s163 (2019).","journal-title":"J Alzheimer\u2019s disease : JAD"},{"key":"28614_CR16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuint.2020.104708","volume":"136","author":"T Schikowski","year":"2020","unstructured":"Schikowski, T. & Altu\u011f, H. The role of air pollution in cognitive impairment and decline. Neurochem Int 136, 104708 (2020).","journal-title":"Neurochem Int"},{"issue":"1","key":"28614_CR17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.7189\/jogh.10.010417","volume":"10","author":"X Yu","year":"2020","unstructured":"Yu, X., Zheng, L., Jiang, W. & Zhang, D. Exposure to air pollution and cognitive impairment risk: a meta-analysis of longitudinal cohort studies with dose-response analysis. J Glob Health 10(1), 010417 (2020).","journal-title":"J Glob Health"},{"issue":"2","key":"28614_CR18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"553","DOI":"10.3233\/JAD-215120","volume":"86","author":"SY Park","year":"2022","unstructured":"Park, S. Y. et al. Impact of Long-Term Exposure to Air Pollution on Cognitive Decline in Older Adults Without Dementia. J Alzheimer\u2019s disease\u202f: JAD 86(2), 553\u2013563 (2022).","journal-title":"J Alzheimer\u2019s disease : JAD"},{"key":"28614_CR19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2024.117438","volume":"362","author":"Q Zhao","year":"2024","unstructured":"Zhao, Q., Del Ponte, A., Hilal, S. & Seow, W. J. Effect of particulate matter on cognitive function among middle-aged and older adults in China: An instrumental variable approach. Soc Sci Med 362, 117438 (2024).","journal-title":"Soc Sci Med"},{"key":"28614_CR20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecoenv.2023.114811","volume":"255","author":"X Wang","year":"2023","unstructured":"Wang, X. et al. Assessing the causal effect of long-term exposure to air pollution on cognitive decline in middle-aged and older adults - Empirical evidence from a nationwide longitudinal cohort. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf 255, 114811 (2023).","journal-title":"Ecotoxicol Environ Saf"},{"key":"28614_CR21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuro.2013.09.004","volume":"40","author":"NM Gatto","year":"2014","unstructured":"Gatto, N. M. et al. Components of air pollution and cognitive function in middle-aged and older adults in Los Angeles. Neurotoxicology 40, 1\u20137 (2014).","journal-title":"Neurotoxicology"},{"key":"28614_CR22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shin J, Han SH, Choi J: Exposure to Ambient Air Pollution and Cognitive Impairment in Community-Dwelling Older Adults: The Korean Frailty and Aging Cohort Study. Int J Environ Res Public Health 2019, 16(19).","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph16193767"},{"issue":"1","key":"28614_CR23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"133","DOI":"10.1080\/00220388.2022.2120804","volume":"59","author":"U Balakrishnan","year":"2023","unstructured":"Balakrishnan, U. & Tsaneva, M. Impact of Air Pollution on Mental Health in India. J Dev Stud 59(1), 133\u2013147 (2023).","journal-title":"J Dev Stud"},{"key":"28614_CR24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"423","DOI":"10.1257\/pandp.20241062","volume":"114","author":"S Chen","year":"2024","unstructured":"Chen, S., Oliva, P. & Zhang, P. Air Pollution and Mental Health: Evidence from China. AEA Papers Proceed 114, 423\u2013428 (2024).","journal-title":"AEA Papers Proceed"},{"issue":"7889","key":"28614_CR25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"494","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-021-04183-x","volume":"600","author":"Z De Miguel","year":"2021","unstructured":"De Miguel, Z. et al. Exercise plasma boosts memory and dampens brain inflammation via clusterin. Nature 600(7889), 494\u2013499 (2021).","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"28614_CR26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.arr.2023.101868","volume":"86","author":"C Chen","year":"2023","unstructured":"Chen, C. & Nakagawa, S. Physical activity for cognitive health promotion: An overview of the underlying neurobiological mechanisms. Ageing Res Rev 86, 101868 (2023).","journal-title":"Ageing Res Rev"},{"issue":"7","key":"28614_CR27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"645","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCULATIONAHA.120.045915","volume":"142","author":"C Guo","year":"2020","unstructured":"Guo, C. et al. Independent and Opposing Associations of Habitual Exercise and Chronic PM(2.5) Exposures on Hypertension Incidence. Circulation 142(7), 645\u2013656 (2020).","journal-title":"Circulation"},{"issue":"11","key":"28614_CR28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1161\/JAHA.119.013611","volume":"9","author":"SR Kim","year":"2020","unstructured":"Kim, S. R., Choi, S., Keum, N. & Park, S. M. Combined Effects of Physical Activity and Air Pollution on Cardiovascular Disease: A Population-Based Study. J Am Heart Assoc 9(11), e013611 (2020).","journal-title":"J Am Heart Assoc"},{"issue":"6","key":"28614_CR29","first-page":"100312","volume":"3","author":"Q Zhang","year":"2022","unstructured":"Zhang, Q. et al. Overview of particulate air pollution and human health in China: Evidence, challenges, and opportunities. Innovation Cambridge Mass 3(6), 100312 (2022).","journal-title":"Innovation Cambridge Mass"},{"key":"28614_CR30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fnagi.2022.937486","volume":"14","author":"X Li","year":"2022","unstructured":"Li, X. et al. Global, regional, and national burden of Alzheimer\u2019s disease and other dementias, 1990\u20132019. Front Aging Neurosci 14, 937486 (2022).","journal-title":"Front Aging Neurosci"},{"issue":"11","key":"28614_CR31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"901","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tins.2023.08.010","volume":"46","author":"R Hussain","year":"2023","unstructured":"Hussain, R., Graham, U., Elder, A. & Nedergaard, M. Air pollution, glymphatic impairment, and Alzheimer\u2019s disease. Trends Neurosci 46(11), 901\u2013911 (2023).","journal-title":"Trends Neurosci"},{"key":"28614_CR32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wei J, Li Z, Lyapustin A, Sun L, Peng Y, Xue W, Su T, Cribb M: Reconstructing 1-km-resolution high-quality PM2.5 data records from 2000 to 2018 in China: spatiotemporal variations and policy implications. Remote Sensing of Environment 2021, 252(000).","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2020.112136"},{"key":"28614_CR33","unstructured":"Wei J, Li Z, Huang W, Xue W, Song Y: Improved 1-km-resolution PM2.5 estimates across China using the space-time extremely randomized trees. Atmospheric Chemistry & Physics Discussions 2019."},{"issue":"22","key":"28614_CR34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"13265","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.est.9b03258","volume":"53","author":"J Wei","year":"2019","unstructured":"Wei, J., Li, Z., Guo, J., Sun, L. & Cribb, M. Satellite-Derived 1-km-Resolution PM1 Concentrations from 2014 to 2018 across China. Environ. Sci. Technol. 53(22), 13265\u201313274 (2019).","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"28614_CR35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envint.2020.106290","volume":"146","author":"J Wei","year":"2021","unstructured":"Wei, J. et al. The ChinaHighPM(10) dataset: generation, validation, and spatiotemporal variations from 2015 to 2019 across China. Environ Int 146, 106290 (2021).","journal-title":"Environ Int"},{"key":"28614_CR36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wei J, Li Z, Wang J, Li C, Gupta P, Cribb M: Ground-level gaseous pollutants across China: daily seamless mapping and long-term spatiotemporal variations. Atmospheric Chemistry & Physics Discussions 2022.","DOI":"10.5194\/acp-2022-627"},{"key":"28614_CR37","unstructured":"Wei J, Liu S, Li Z, Liu C, Qin K, Liu X, Pinker RT, Dickerson RR, Lin J, Boersma KF: Ground-Level NO2 Surveillance from Space Across China for High Resolution Using Interpretable Spatiotemporally Weighted Artificial Intelligence."},{"key":"28614_CR38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"162501","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2023.162501","volume":"874","author":"H Jiang","year":"2023","unstructured":"Jiang, H. et al. Does physical activity attenuate the association between ambient PM(2.5) and physical function?. Sci Total Environ 874, 162501 (2023).","journal-title":"Sci Total Environ"},{"key":"28614_CR39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envpol.2022.120348","volume":"315","author":"Q Guo","year":"2022","unstructured":"Guo, Q. et al. Physical activity attenuated the associations between ambient air pollutants and metabolic syndrome (MetS): A nationwide study across 28 provinces. Environ Pollut 315, 120348 (2022).","journal-title":"Environ Pollut"},{"issue":"1","key":"28614_CR40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"i162","DOI":"10.1093\/geronb\/gbr048","volume":"66","author":"EM Crimmins","year":"2011","unstructured":"Crimmins, E. M., Kim, J. K., Langa, K. M. & Weir, D. R. Assessment of cognition using surveys and neuropsychological assessment: the Health and Retirement Study and the Aging, Demographics, and Memory Study. J Gerontol B Psychol Sci Soc Sci 66(1), i162-171 (2011).","journal-title":"J Gerontol B Psychol Sci Soc Sci"},{"key":"28614_CR41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envint.2020.106251","volume":"146","author":"L Cao","year":"2021","unstructured":"Cao, L., Zhao, Z., Ji, C. & Xia, Y. Association between solid fuel use and cognitive impairment: A cross-sectional and follow-up study in a middle-aged and older Chinese population. Environ Int 146, 106251 (2021).","journal-title":"Environ Int"},{"issue":"8","key":"28614_CR42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1381","DOI":"10.1249\/01.MSS.0000078924.61453.FB","volume":"35","author":"CL Craig","year":"2003","unstructured":"Craig, C. L. & Marshall, A. L. Sj??Str??M M, Bauman AE, Booth ML, Ainsworth BE, Pratt M, Ekelund U, Yngve A, Sallis JF: International physical activity questionnaire: 12-country reliability and validity. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 35(8), 1381\u20131395 (2003).","journal-title":"Med Sci Sports Exerc."},{"key":"28614_CR43","first-page":"1","volume":"1","author":"W Chenkai","year":"2017","unstructured":"Chenkai, W., Ellen, S., Qian-Li, X. & Odden, M. C. Prevalence and Correlates of Frailty Among Community-Dwelling Chinese Older Adults: The China Health and Retirement Longitudinal Study. J Gerontology 1, 1 (2017).","journal-title":"J Gerontology"},{"key":"28614_CR44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2023.162501","volume":"874","author":"H Jiang","year":"2023","unstructured":"Jiang, H. et al. Does physical activity attenuate the association between ambient PM2.5 and physical function?. Sci Total Environ 874, 10 (2023).","journal-title":"Sci Total Environ"},{"key":"28614_CR45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jett\u00e9 M, Sidney K, Bl\u00fcmchen G: Metabolic equivalents (METS) in exercise testing, exercise prescription, and evaluation of functional capacity. Clinical Cardiology 1990, 13(8).","DOI":"10.1002\/clc.4960130809"},{"issue":"1","key":"28614_CR46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1682","DOI":"10.1186\/s12889-020-09671-9","volume":"20","author":"X Li","year":"2020","unstructured":"Li, X. et al. Level of physical activity among middle-aged and older Chinese people: evidence from the China health and retirement longitudinal study. BMC Public Health 20(1), 1682 (2020).","journal-title":"BMC Public Health"},{"issue":"9","key":"28614_CR47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1727","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1532-5415.2010.03012.x","volume":"58","author":"M Morie","year":"2010","unstructured":"Morie, M. et al. Habitual physical activity levels are associated with performance in measures of physical function and mobility in older men. J Am Geriatr Soc 58(9), 1727\u20131733 (2010).","journal-title":"J Am Geriatr Soc"},{"issue":"4","key":"28614_CR48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"344","DOI":"10.1037\/str0000113","volume":"26","author":"JP Gnam","year":"2018","unstructured":"Gnam, J. P., Lffler, S. N., Hrtel, S., Engel, F. & Strahler, J. On the Relationship Between Physical Activity, Physical Fitness, and Stress Reactivity to a Real-Life Mental Stressor. Int. J. Stress. Manag. 26(4), 344\u2013355 (2018).","journal-title":"Int. J. Stress. Manag."},{"issue":"10452","key":"28614_CR49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"572","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(24)01296-0","volume":"404","author":"G Livingston","year":"2024","unstructured":"Livingston, G. et al. Dementia prevention, intervention, and care: 2024 report of the Lancet standing Commission. Lancet 404(10452), 572\u2013628 (2024).","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"issue":"4","key":"28614_CR50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"440","DOI":"10.1007\/s40572-015-0069-5","volume":"2","author":"A Hajat","year":"2015","unstructured":"Hajat, A., Hsia, C. & O\u2019Neill, M. S. Socioeconomic Disparities and Air Pollution Exposure: a Global Review. Curr Environ Health Rep 2(4), 440\u2013450 (2015).","journal-title":"Curr Environ Health Rep"},{"issue":"2","key":"28614_CR51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"519","DOI":"10.1007\/s40201-024-00911-3","volume":"22","author":"GM Su","year":"2024","unstructured":"Su, G. M. et al. Indoor air pollution by solid fuel usages for cooking is longitudinally associated with possible sarcopenia in middle-aged Chinese population. J Environ Health Sci Eng 22(2), 519\u2013531 (2024).","journal-title":"J Environ Health Sci Eng"},{"key":"28614_CR52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecoenv.2024.116238","volume":"275","author":"B Yin","year":"2024","unstructured":"Yin, B. et al. Effect of extreme high temperature on cognitive function at different time scales: A national difference-in-differences analysis. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf 275, 116238 (2024).","journal-title":"Ecotoxicol Environ Saf"},{"key":"28614_CR53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecoenv.2024.116008","volume":"271","author":"Z Gui","year":"2024","unstructured":"Gui, Z. et al. Severer air pollution, poorer cognitive function: Findings from 176,345 elders in Northwestern China. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf 271, 116008 (2024).","journal-title":"Ecotoxicol Environ Saf"},{"issue":"10","key":"28614_CR54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1127","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.295.10.1127","volume":"295","author":"F Dominici","year":"2006","unstructured":"Dominici, F. et al. Fine particulate air pollution and hospital admission for cardiovascular and respiratory diseases. JAMA 295(10), 1127\u20131134 (2006).","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"issue":"8","key":"28614_CR55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"467","DOI":"10.1038\/nrn3027","volume":"12","author":"SG Disner","year":"2011","unstructured":"Disner, S. G., Beevers, C. G., Haigh, E. A. & Beck, A. T. Neural mechanisms of the cognitive model of depression. Nat Rev Neurosci 12(8), 467\u2013477 (2011).","journal-title":"Nat Rev Neurosci"},{"issue":"1","key":"28614_CR56","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.1161\/STROKEAHA.122.041775","volume":"54","author":"SC Cramer","year":"2023","unstructured":"Cramer, S. C., Richards, L. G., Bernhardt, J. & Duncan, P. Cognitive Deficits After Stroke. Stroke 54(1), 5\u20139 (2023).","journal-title":"Stroke"},{"key":"28614_CR57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dutra E, Mu\u00f1oz\u2010Sabater J, Boussetta S, Komori T, Hirahara S, Balsamo G: Environmental lapse rate for high resolution land surface downscaling: An application to ERA5. Earth and Space Science 2020, 7.","DOI":"10.1029\/2019EA000984"},{"issue":"10","key":"28614_CR58","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"65","DOI":"10.1063\/1.1629008","volume":"56","author":"MZ Jacobson","year":"2003","unstructured":"Jacobson, M. Z. & Oppenheimer, M. Atmospheric Pollution: History, Science, and Regulation. Phys. Today 56(10), 65\u201366 (2003).","journal-title":"Phys. Today"},{"key":"28614_CR59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang B, Wu B, Liu J: PM2.5 pollution-related Health Effects and Willingness to Pay for Improved Air Quality: Evidence from China\u2019s Prefecture-level Cities. Journal of Cleaner Production 2020:122876.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2020.122876"},{"issue":"2","key":"28614_CR60","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"296","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jeem.2014.06.005","volume":"68","author":"L Hering","year":"2014","unstructured":"Hering, L. & Poncet, S. Environmental policy and exports: Evidence from Chinese cities. J. Environ. Econ. Manag. 68(2), 296\u2013318 (2014).","journal-title":"J. Environ. Econ. Manag."},{"key":"28614_CR61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Angrist JD, Pischke J-S: Mostly Harmless Econometrics: An Empiricist\u2019s Companion. european review of agricultural economics 2008.","DOI":"10.2307\/j.ctvcm4j72"},{"issue":"6","key":"28614_CR62","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1251","DOI":"10.2307\/1913827","volume":"46","author":"JA Hausman","year":"1978","unstructured":"Hausman, J. A. Specification Tests in Econometrics. Econometrica 46(6), 1251\u20131271 (1978).","journal-title":"Econometrica"},{"key":"28614_CR63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gryning SE: S. Pal Arya, Air Pollution Meteorology and Dispersion. Journal of Atmospheric Chemistry 2000, 94(1):171\u2013172.","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1002455203371"},{"key":"28614_CR64","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"118263","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envpol.2021.118263","volume":"292","author":"Q Guo","year":"2022","unstructured":"Guo, Q., Wang, Y., Zhang, Y., Yi, M. & Zhang, T. Environmental migration effects of air pollution: Micro-level evidence from China. Environ. Pollut. 292, 118263 (2022).","journal-title":"Environ. Pollut."},{"issue":"2","key":"28614_CR65","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"222","DOI":"10.1017\/S0266466600007519","volume":"9","author":"CSG Donald","year":"1993","unstructured":"Donald, C. S. G. Testing Identifiability and Specification in Instrumental Variable Models. Economet. Theor. 9(2), 222\u2013240 (1993).","journal-title":"Economet. Theor."},{"key":"28614_CR66","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envint.2020.105954","volume":"147","author":"M Tainio","year":"2021","unstructured":"Tainio, M. et al. Air pollution, physical activity and health: A mapping review of the evidence. Environ Int 147, 105954 (2021).","journal-title":"Environ Int"},{"key":"28614_CR67","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"391","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jad.2024.07.108","volume":"363","author":"J Li","year":"2024","unstructured":"Li, J. et al. The interaction between physical activity and ambient particulate matters on cognitive function among Chinese community-dwelling older adults. J. Affect. Disord. 363, 391\u2013400 (2024).","journal-title":"J. Affect. Disord."},{"key":"28614_CR68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ram\u00edrez-Mendoza AA, Mendoza-Maga\u00f1a ML, Ram\u00edrez-Herrera MA, Hern\u00e1ndez-Nazara ZH, Dom\u00ednguez-Rosales JA: Nitrooxidative Stress and Neuroinflammation Caused by Air Pollutants Are Associated with the Biological Markers of Neurodegenerative Diseases. Antioxidants (Basel) 2024, 13(3).","DOI":"10.3390\/antiox13030326"},{"key":"28614_CR69","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2518","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2019.02518","volume":"10","author":"JJ Zhang","year":"2019","unstructured":"Zhang, J. J., Wei, Y. & Fang, Z. Ozone Pollution: A Major Health Hazard Worldwide. Front Immunol 10, 2518 (2019).","journal-title":"Front Immunol"},{"issue":"5","key":"28614_CR70","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1880","DOI":"10.1096\/fj.201500047","volume":"30","author":"CL Mumaw","year":"2016","unstructured":"Mumaw, C. L. et al. Microglial priming through the lung-brain axis: the role of air pollution-induced circulating factors. Faseb j 30(5), 1880\u20131891 (2016).","journal-title":"Faseb j"},{"issue":"1","key":"28614_CR71","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"24","DOI":"10.1515\/tnsci-2016-0005","volume":"7","author":"S Brockmeyer","year":"2016","unstructured":"Brockmeyer, S. & D\u2019Angiulli, A. How air pollution alters brain development: the role of neuroinflammation. Transl Neurosci 7(1), 24\u201330 (2016).","journal-title":"Transl Neurosci"},{"issue":"11","key":"28614_CR72","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1505","DOI":"10.1007\/s40279-014-0222-6","volume":"44","author":"I Bos","year":"2014","unstructured":"Bos, I., De Boever, P., Int Panis, L. & Meeusen, R. Physical activity, air pollution and the brain. Sports Med 44(11), 1505\u20131518 (2014).","journal-title":"Sports Med"},{"key":"28614_CR73","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envres.2023.116519","volume":"234","author":"A D'Oliveira","year":"2023","unstructured":"D\u2019Oliveira, A. et al. Impact of air pollution on the health of the older adults during physical activity and sedentary behavior: A systematic review. Environ Res 234, 116519 (2023).","journal-title":"Environ Res"},{"key":"28614_CR74","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envint.2021.107070","volume":"160","author":"Y Zhang","year":"2022","unstructured":"Zhang, Y., Ke, L., Fu, Y., Di, Q. & Ma, X. Physical activity attenuates negative effects of short-term exposure to ambient air pollution on cognitive function. Environ Int 160, 107070 (2022).","journal-title":"Environ Int"}],"container-title":["Scientific Reports"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41598-025-28614-1.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41598-025-28614-1","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41598-025-28614-1.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,28]],"date-time":"2026-04-28T17:04:35Z","timestamp":1777395875000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41598-025-28614-1"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,23]]},"references-count":74,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,12]]}},"alternative-id":["28614"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s41598-025-28614-1","relation":{},"ISSN":["2045-2322"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2045-2322","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,23]]},"assertion":[{"value":"11 September 2025","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"11 November 2025","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"23 November 2025","order":3,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"order":1,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"The authors declare no competing interests.","order":2,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Competing interests"}},{"value":"The Ethics Review Committee of Peking University reviewed and approved this study involving human participants. Written informed consent was obtained from all participants before their involvement.","order":3,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Ethics approval and consent to participate"}}],"article-number":"45167"}}