{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,9]],"date-time":"2026-09-09T17:38:37Z","timestamp":1788975517982,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":29,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,20]],"date-time":"2026-01-20T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1768867200000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-nd\/4.0"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,3]],"date-time":"2026-02-03T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1770076800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":14,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-nd\/4.0"}],"funder":[{"name":"University Consortium for Field Focused Groundwater Research"},{"name":"ESTCP program"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sci Rep"],"DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-025-34718-5","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,20]],"date-time":"2026-01-20T20:06:06Z","timestamp":1768939566000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Natural source zone depletion predicts finite longevity for petroleum products in soil and groundwater"],"prefix":"10.1038","volume":"16","author":[{"given":"Kayvan","family":"Karimi Askarani","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Tom","family":"Sale","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,20]]},"reference":[{"key":"34718_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wiedemeier, T. H., Rifai, H. S., Newell, C. J. & Wilson, J. T. Natural Attenuation of Fuels and Chlorinated Solvents in the Subsurface (Wiley, 1999).","DOI":"10.1002\/9780470172964"},{"key":"34718_CR2","unstructured":"National Research Council. Natural Attenuation for Groundwater Remediation (National Academy, 2000)."},{"key":"34718_CR3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Amos, R. T., Mayer, K. U., Bekins, B. A., Delin, G. N. & Williams, R. L. Use of dissolved and vapor-phase gases to investigate methanogenic degradation of petroleum hydrocarbon contamination in the subsurface. Water Resour. Res. 41(2), 1\u201315 (2005).","DOI":"10.1029\/2004WR003433"},{"issue":"3","key":"34718_CR4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"62","DOI":"10.1111\/gwmr.12219","volume":"37","author":"S Garg","year":"2017","unstructured":"Garg, S. et al. Overview of natural source zone depletion: Processes, controlling factors, and composition change. Groundw. Monit. Remediation. 37 (3), 62\u201381 (2017).","journal-title":"Groundw. Monit. Remediation"},{"key":"34718_CR5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3347","DOI":"10.1007\/s00253-015-7106-z","volume":"100","author":"M Irianni-Renno","year":"2016","unstructured":"Irianni-Renno, M. et al. Comparison of bacterial and archaeal communities in depth-resolved zones in an LNAPL body. Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 100, 3347\u20133360 (2016).","journal-title":"Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol."},{"key":"34718_CR6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.1016\/j.copbio.2013.09.002","volume":"27","author":"LM Gieg","year":"2014","unstructured":"Gieg, L. M., Fowler, S. J. & Berdugo-Clavijo, C. Syntrophic biodegradation of hydrocarbon contaminants. Curr. Opin. Biotechnol. 27, 21\u201329 (2014).","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Biotechnol."},{"issue":"4","key":"34718_CR7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"qjegh2021","DOI":"10.1144\/qjegh2021-166","volume":"55","author":"JW Smith","year":"2022","unstructured":"Smith, J. W. et al. Natural source zone depletion (NSZD): from process Understanding to effective implementation at LNAPL-impacted sites. Q. J. Eng. Geol.Hydrogeol. 55 (4), qjegh2021\u2013qjegh2166 (2022).","journal-title":"Q. J. Eng. Geol.Hydrogeol."},{"issue":"4","key":"34718_CR8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"82","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1745-6592.2006.00114.x","volume":"26","author":"P Johnson","year":"2006","unstructured":"Johnson, P., Lundegard, P. & Liu, Z. Source zone natural Attenuation at petroleum hydrocarbon spill sites\u2014I: Site-specific assessment approach. Groundw. Monit. Remediation. 26 (4), 82\u201392 (2006).","journal-title":"Groundw. Monit. Remediation"},{"issue":"8","key":"34718_CR9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"875","DOI":"10.3390\/jmse9080875","volume":"9","author":"H Yang","year":"2021","unstructured":"Yang, H., Yu, S. & Lu, H. Iron-coupled anaerobic oxidation of methane in marine sediments: a review. J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 9 (8), 875 (2021).","journal-title":"J. Mar. Sci. Eng."},{"issue":"7","key":"34718_CR10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2231","DOI":"10.1029\/96WR00805","volume":"32","author":"MA Lahvis","year":"1996","unstructured":"Lahvis, M. A. & Baehr, A. L. Estimation of rates of aerobic hydrocarbon biodegradation by simulation of gas transport in the unsaturated zone. Water Resour. Res. 32 (7), 2231\u20132249 (1996).","journal-title":"Water Resour. Res."},{"key":"34718_CR11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"115245","DOI":"10.1016\/j.watres.2019.115245","volume":"169","author":"KK Askarani","year":"2020","unstructured":"Askarani, K. K. & Sale, T. C. Thermal Estimation of natural source zone depletion rates without background correction. Water Res. 169, 115245 (2020).","journal-title":"Water Res."},{"issue":"6","key":"34718_CR12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"861","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1745-6584.2012.00949.x","volume":"50","author":"N Mahler","year":"2012","unstructured":"Mahler, N., Sale, T. & Lyverse, M. A mass balance approach to resolving LNAPL stability. Groundwater 50 (6), 861\u2013871 (2012).","journal-title":"Groundwater"},{"issue":"1","key":"34718_CR13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"14080","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-019-50426-3","volume":"9","author":"ON Forde","year":"2019","unstructured":"Forde, O. N., Cahill, A. G., Beckie, R. D. & Mayer, K. U. Barometric-pumping controls fugitive gas emissions from a vadose zone natural gas release. Sci. Rep. 9 (1), 14080 (2019).","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"34718_CR14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"124403","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhazmat.2020.124403","volume":"408","author":"T Sale","year":"2021","unstructured":"Sale, T. et al. Real-time soil and groundwater monitoring via Spatial and Temporal resolution of biogeochemical potentials. J. Hazard. Mater. 408, 124403 (2021).","journal-title":"J. Hazard. Mater."},{"key":"34718_CR15","unstructured":"Taylor, R. W. Petroleum Production Handbook: Reservoir Engineering Vol. 2 (Society of Petroleum Engineers of AIME, 1962)."},{"issue":"3","key":"34718_CR16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"418","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1745-6584.1997.tb00101.x","volume":"35","author":"T Sale","year":"1997","unstructured":"Sale, T. & Applegate, D. Mobile NAPL recovery: Conceptual, field, and mathematical considerations. Groundwater 35 (3), 418\u2013426 (1997).","journal-title":"Groundwater"},{"issue":"4","key":"34718_CR17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.1111\/gwmr.12186","volume":"36","author":"S Kiaalhosseini","year":"2016","unstructured":"Kiaalhosseini, S. et al. Cryogenic core collection (C3) from unconsolidated subsurface media. Groundw. Monit. Remediation. 36 (4), 41\u201349 (2016).","journal-title":"Groundw. Monit. Remediation"},{"key":"34718_CR18","unstructured":"Sale, T., Kiaalhosseini, S., Olson, M., Johnson, R. & Rogers, R. Third Generation (3G) Site Characterization: Cryogenic Core Collection and High Throughput Core Analysis-An Addendum To Basic Research Addressing Contaminants in Low Permeability Zones-A State of the Science Review (Colorado State University Fort Collins United States, 2016)."},{"key":"34718_CR19","unstructured":"Olson, M. Evaluating long-term Impacts of soil-mixing source-zone Treatment Using Cryogenic Core Collection (Trihydro Corporation Laramie United States, 2017)."},{"key":"34718_CR20","unstructured":"Kiaalhosseini, S., Sale, T., Rogers, R., Irrianni-Renno, M. & Johnson, R. Cryogenic core collection and high-resolution sample analysis to support subsurface remediation. Chapter 5. In R. Naidu, J. Sadeque, & A. Lal (Eds.), Sampling and Assessment of Contaminated Sites. World Scientific Publishing Company. In press. (2024)."},{"key":"34718_CR21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"101503","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mex.2021.101503","volume":"8","author":"M Irianni-Renno","year":"2021","unstructured":"Irianni-Renno, M., Sale, T. C. & Susan, K. Advanced methods for RNA recovery from petroleum impacted soils. MethodsX 8, 101503 (2021).","journal-title":"MethodsX"},{"issue":"4","key":"34718_CR22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"658","DOI":"10.1111\/gwat.12240","volume":"53","author":"K McCoy","year":"2015","unstructured":"McCoy, K., Zimbron, J., Sale, T. & Lyverse, M. Measurement of natural losses of LNAPL using CO2 traps. Groundwater 53 (4), 658\u2013667 (2015).","journal-title":"Groundwater"},{"key":"34718_CR23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Fetkovich, M. J., Fetkovich, E. J. & Fetkovich, M. D. Useful concepts for decline curve forecasting, reserve estimation, and analysis. Society of Petroleum Engineers. (1996). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2118\/28628-PA","DOI":"10.2118\/28628-PA"},{"key":"34718_CR24","unstructured":"United States. Environmental Protection Agency & Office of Underground Storage Tanks. How to Effectively Recover Free Product at Leaking Underground Storage Tank Sites: A Guide for State Regulators. US Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Underground Storage Tanks. (1996)."},{"key":"34718_CR25","unstructured":"Dean, J. A. Lange\u2019s handbook of chemistry. (1999)."},{"issue":"5147","key":"34718_CR26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1180","DOI":"10.1038\/2181180a0","volume":"218","author":"DJ Bellamy","year":"1968","unstructured":"Bellamy, D. J. & Clarke, P. H. Application of the second law of thermodynamics and Le chatelier\u2019s principle to the developing ecosystem. Nature 218 (5147), 1180\u20131180 (1968).","journal-title":"Nature"},{"issue":"3","key":"34718_CR27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"439","DOI":"10.1016\/S0016-7037(99)00330-0","volume":"64","author":"AV Plyasunov","year":"2000","unstructured":"Plyasunov, A. V. & Shock, E. L. Thermodynamic functions of hydration of hydrocarbons at 298.15 K and 0.1 MPa. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta. 64 (3), 439\u2013468 (2000).","journal-title":"Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta"},{"key":"34718_CR28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"104007","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jconhyd.2022.104007","volume":"248","author":"GB Davis","year":"2022","unstructured":"Davis, G. B. et al. Tracking NSZD mass removal rates over decades: Site-wide and local scale assessment of mass removal at a legacy petroleum site. J. Contam. Hydrol. 248, 104007 (2022).","journal-title":"J. Contam. Hydrol."},{"key":"34718_CR29","unstructured":"US Code of Federal Register. 280.64 Free Product Recovery. (2022)."}],"container-title":["Scientific Reports"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41598-025-34718-5","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41598-025-34718-5.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41598-025-34718-5.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,3]],"date-time":"2026-02-03T09:16:57Z","timestamp":1770110217000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41598-025-34718-5"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,20]]},"references-count":29,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,12]]}},"alternative-id":["34718"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s41598-025-34718-5","relation":{},"ISSN":["2045-2322"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2045-2322","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,20]]},"assertion":[{"value":"10 September 2025","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"30 December 2025","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"20 January 2026","order":3,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"order":1,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"The authors declare no competing interests.","order":2,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Competing interests"}}],"article-number":"4598"}}