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We evaluated blood-based biomarkers for neurodegeneration and Alzheimer\u2019s Disease (AD) pathology, clinical features, and MRI biomarkers in former professional boxers compared to patients with AD or patients with subjective cognitive decline (SCD). Nine former boxers were compared to age-matched patients (without single TBI or RHI) with biomarker confirmed AD (<jats:italic>N<\/jats:italic>\u2009=\u200915) or SCD (<jats:italic>N<\/jats:italic>\u2009=\u200914). Plasma samples were analyzed for amyloid beta (A\u03b2)42, A\u03b242\/40 ratio, phosphorylated tau (p-tau)181, p-tau217, glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) and neurofilament light (NfL) concentrations. Brain MRI images were processed through Freesurfer to compute disease-related regions-of-interest (ROIs) for AD, frontotemporal dementia (FTD), or chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE). Cognitive performance was assessed in memory and executive functioning (EF) domains. Five boxers had follow-up measurements after ~\u20097 years. Former boxers had higher plasma GFAP, p-tau181 and p-tau217 than patients with SCD, lower volumes in all pre-specified disease-related brain regions. No differences on neuropsychological test scores between boxers and those with SCD were observed. Longitudinal analysis in the boxer group demonstrated elevation of plasma NfL and p-tau181 over time. The current study suggests the presence of biological processes indicative for neurodegeneration in former boxers, without evident clinical decline. Plasma GFAP, p-tau181 and p-tau217 may be promising biomarkers for indicating risk for neuronal damage following RHI.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-025-93066-6","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,6]],"date-time":"2025-06-06T14:37:40Z","timestamp":1749220660000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":4,"title":["Plasma and MRI biomarkers capture neuronal damage in former professional boxers"],"prefix":"10.1038","volume":"15","author":[{"given":"Suzie","family":"Kamps","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Suzan","family":"van Amerongen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Elena R.","family":"Blujdea","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Marloes I.","family":"Hoppen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Bram","family":"Bongers","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kasper H.","family":"Schelvis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Dewi K.","family":"Caton","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Marsh","family":"K\u00f6nigs","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Charlotte E.","family":"Teunissen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Philip","family":"Scheltens","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Rik","family":"Ossenkoppele","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Everard G. 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We confirm that all research was performed according to the declaration of Helsinki. Written informed consent was obtained from all study participants.","order":2,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Ethics approval and consent to participate"}},{"value":"S. Kamps, S. van Amerongen, E.R. Blujdea, M.I. Hoppen, B. Bongers, K.H.Schelvis, D.K. Caton, and M. K\u00f6nigs report no competing interests. E.G.B. Vijverberg has received consultancy fees (paid to the university) for New Amsterdam Pharma, Treeway, ReMynd, Vivoryon, Biogen, Vigil Neuroscience, ImmunoBrain Checkpoint, Muna Therapeutics, Esai, Eli Lilly, CogRX, Therini, UCB and Roche.Within his university affiliation he is PI of studies of DIAN, AC immune, Alnylam, CogRX therapeutics, New Amsterdam Pharma, Janssen, UCB, Roche, Vivoryon, ImmunoBrain, GSK, MSD, Biogen, Alector, Eli Lilly, AriBio Fuij Film Toyama, GemVax. EGBV is co-founder of the CANDIDATE Center Amsterdam UMC. EGBV collaborates on scientific projects with the Dutch Soccer Association (KNVB). R. Ossenkoppele has received research funding\/support from Avid Radiopharmaceuticals, Janssen Research & Development, Roche, Quanterix and Optina Diagnostics, has given lectures in symposia sponsored by GE Healthcare, is an advisory board member for Asceneuron and a steering committee member for Biogen and Bristol Myers Squibb. All the aforementioned has been paid to his institutionsP. Scheltens is an employee of EQT Life Sciences (formerly LSP). Research of C.E. Teunissen is supported by the European Commission (Marie Curie International Training Network, grant agreement no 860197 [MIRIADE]), Innovative Medicines Initiatives 3TR (Horizon 2020, grant no. 831434) EPND (IMI 2 Joint Undertaking [JU], grant no. 101034344) and JPND (bPRIDE), National MS Society (Progressive MS alliance), Alzheimer Association, Health Holland, the Dutch Research Council (ZonMW), Alzheimer Drug Discovery Foundation, The Selfridges Group Foundation, Alzheimer Netherlands. C.E. Teunissen is recipient of ABOARD, which is a public-private partnership receiving funding from ZonMW (#73305095007) and Health\u223cHolland, Topsector Life Sciences & Health (PPP-allowance; #LSHM20106). C.E. Teunissen is recipient of TAP-dementia, a ZonMw funded project (#10510032120003) in the context of the Dutch National Dementia Strategy. C.E. Teunissen has a collaboration contract with ADx Neurosciences, Quanterix, and Eli Lilly, performed contract research or received grants from AC-Immune, Axon Neurosciences, BioConnect, Bioorchestra, Brainstorm Therapeutics, Celgene, EIP Pharma, Eisai, Fujirebio, Grifols, Instant Nano Biosensors, Merck, Novo Nordisk, PeopleBio, Roche, Siemens, Toyama, and Vivoryon. She is editor of Alzheimer Research and Therapy and serves on editorial boards of Medidact Neurologie\/Springer and Neurology: Neuroimmunology & Neuroinflammation. She had speaker contracts for Roche, Grifols, and Novo Nordisk. All funds were paid to her institution.","order":3,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Competing interests"}}],"article-number":"20005"}}