{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,11,3]],"date-time":"2026-11-03T18:51:00Z","timestamp":1793731860262,"version":"4.6.1"},"reference-count":91,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,19]],"date-time":"2025-03-19T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1742342400000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-nd\/4.0"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,19]],"date-time":"2025-03-19T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1742342400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-nd\/4.0"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sci Rep"],"DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-025-93100-7","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,19]],"date-time":"2025-03-19T14:05:00Z","timestamp":1742393100000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":10,"title":["A path forward on online misinformation mitigation based on current user behavior"],"prefix":"10.1038","volume":"15","author":[{"given":"Catherine","family":"King","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Samantha C.","family":"Phillips","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kathleen M.","family":"Carley","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,19]]},"reference":[{"key":"93100_CR1","unstructured":"Seven ways misinformation spread during the 2016 election. Knight Foundation https:\/\/knightfoundation.org\/articles\/seven-ways-misinformation-spread-during-the-2016-election\/ (2018)."},{"key":"93100_CR2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"211","DOI":"10.1257\/jep.31.2.211","volume":"31","author":"H Allcott","year":"2017","unstructured":"Allcott, H. & Gentzkow, M. Social media and fake news in the 2016 election. J. Econ. Perspect. 31, 211\u2013236 (2017).","journal-title":"J. Econ. Perspect."},{"key":"93100_CR3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Courchesne, L., Ilhardt, J. & Shapiro, J. N. Review of social science research on the impact of countermeasures against influence operations. Harv. Kennedy Sch. Misinformation Rev. 2, (2021).","DOI":"10.37016\/mr-2020-79"},{"key":"93100_CR4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"374","DOI":"10.1126\/science.aau2706","volume":"363","author":"N Grinberg","year":"2019","unstructured":"Grinberg, N., Joseph, K., Friedland, L., Swire-Thompson, B. & Lazer, D. Fake news on Twitter during the 2016 US presidential election. Science 363, 374 (2019).","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"93100_CR5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2139\/ssrn.3144139","author":"J Tucker","year":"2018","unstructured":"Tucker, J. et al. Social media, political polarization, and political disinformation: A review of the scientific literature. SSRN Electron. J. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2139\/ssrn.3144139 (2018).","journal-title":"SSRN Electron. J."},{"key":"93100_CR6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"80","DOI":"10.1145\/3373464.3373475","volume":"21","author":"L Wu","year":"2019","unstructured":"Wu, L., Morstatter, F., Carley, K. M. & Liu, H. Misinformation in social media: Definition, manipulation, and detection. ACM SIGKDD Explor. Newsl. 21, 80\u201390 (2019).","journal-title":"ACM SIGKDD Explor. Newsl."},{"key":"93100_CR7","first-page":"1","volume":"16","author":"M Wang","year":"2020","unstructured":"Wang, M., Rao, M. & Sun, Z. Typology, etiology, and fact-checking: A pathological study of top fake news in China. J. Pract. 16, 1\u201319 (2020).","journal-title":"J. Pract."},{"key":"93100_CR8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1145\/3309699","volume":"11","author":"S Zannettou","year":"2019","unstructured":"Zannettou, S., Sirivianos, M., Blackburn, J. & Kourtellis, N. The web of false information: Rumors, fake news, hoaxes, clickbait, and various other shenanigans. J. Data Inf. Qual. 11, 1\u201337 (2019).","journal-title":"J. Data Inf. Qual."},{"key":"93100_CR9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2776","DOI":"10.1007\/s10461-020-02925-y","volume":"24","author":"J Jaiswal","year":"2020","unstructured":"Jaiswal, J., LoSchiavo, C. & Perlman, D. C. Disinformation, misinformation and inequality-driven mistrust in the time of COVID-19: Lessons unlearned from AIDS denialism. AIDS Behav. 24, 2776\u20132780 (2020).","journal-title":"AIDS Behav."},{"key":"93100_CR10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2012","DOI":"10.1177\/1461444820925041","volume":"23","author":"H Seo","year":"2021","unstructured":"Seo, H., Blomberg, M., Altschwager, D. & Vu, H. T. Vulnerable populations and misinformation: A mixed-methods approach to underserved older adults\u2019 online information assessment. New Media Soc. 23, 2012\u20132033 (2021).","journal-title":"New Media Soc."},{"key":"93100_CR11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2022.115398","volume":"314","author":"X Nan","year":"2022","unstructured":"Nan, X., Wang, Y. & Thier, K. Why do people believe health misinformation and who is at risk? A systematic review of individual differences in susceptibility to health misinformation. Soc. Sci. Med. 314, 115398 (2022).","journal-title":"Soc. Sci. Med."},{"key":"93100_CR12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pdisas.2020.100119","volume":"8","author":"Z Barua","year":"2020","unstructured":"Barua, Z., Barua, S., Aktar, S., Kabir, N. & Li, M. Effects of misinformation on COVID-19 individual responses and recommendations for resilience of disastrous consequences of misinformation. Prog. Disaster Sci. 8, 100119 (2020).","journal-title":"Prog. Disaster Sci."},{"key":"93100_CR13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"74","DOI":"10.1038\/s41562-022-01460-1","volume":"7","author":"P Lorenz-Spreen","year":"2023","unstructured":"Lorenz-Spreen, P., Oswald, L., Lewandowsky, S. & Hertwig, R. A systematic review of worldwide causal and correlational evidence on digital media and democracy. Nat. Hum. Behav. 7, 74\u2013101 (2023).","journal-title":"Nat. Hum. Behav."},{"key":"93100_CR14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1496","DOI":"10.1177\/08944393211012268","volume":"40","author":"D Assenmacher","year":"2022","unstructured":"Assenmacher, D. et al. Benchmarking crisis in social media analytics: A solution for the data-sharing problem. Soc. Sci. Comput. Rev. 40, 1496\u20131522 (2022).","journal-title":"Soc. Sci. Comput. Rev."},{"key":"93100_CR15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Allen, J., Martel, C. & Rand, D. G. Birds of a feather don\u2019t fact-check each other: Partisanship and the evaluation of news in Twitter\u2019s Birdwatch crowdsourced fact-checking program. in CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems 1\u201319 (ACM, New Orleans LA USA, 2022). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/3491102.3502040.","DOI":"10.1145\/3491102.3502040"},{"key":"93100_CR16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Bor, A., Osmundsen, M., Rasmussen, S. H. R., Bechmann, A. & Petersen, M. B. \u2018Fact-checking\u2019 videos reduce belief in misinformation and improve the quality of news shared on Twitter. Preprint at https:\/\/doi.org\/10.31234\/osf.io\/a7huq (2020).","DOI":"10.31234\/osf.io\/a7huq"},{"key":"93100_CR17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"185","DOI":"10.1037\/h0101809","volume":"6","author":"UKH Ecker","year":"2017","unstructured":"Ecker, U. K. H., Hogan, J. L. & Lewandowsky, S. Reminders and repetition of misinformation: Helping or hindering its retraction?. J. Appl. Res. Mem. Cogn. 6, 185\u2013192 (2017).","journal-title":"J. Appl. Res. Mem. Cogn."},{"key":"93100_CR18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Lewandowsky, S., Cook, J. & Lombardi, D. Debunking Handbook 2020. Databrary https:\/\/doi.org\/10.17910\/B7.1182 (2020).","DOI":"10.17910\/B7.1182"},{"key":"93100_CR19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lewandowsky, S. & van der Linden, S. Countering misinformation and fake news through inoculation and prebunking. Eur. Rev. Soc. Psychol. 0, 1\u201338 (2021).","DOI":"10.1080\/10463283.2021.1876983"},{"key":"93100_CR20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Roozenbeek, J., Linden, S. van der & Nygren, T. Prebunking interventions based on \u201cinoculation\u201d theory can reduce susceptibility to misinformation across cultures. Harv. Kennedy Sch. Misinformation Rev. 1, (2020).","DOI":"10.37016\/\/mr-2020-008"},{"key":"93100_CR21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.37016\/mr-2020-81","author":"E Saltz","year":"2021","unstructured":"Saltz, E., Barari, S., Leibowicz, C. R. & Wardle, C. Misinformation interventions are common, divisive, and poorly understood. Harv. Kennedy Sch. Misinformation Rev. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.37016\/mr-2020-81 (2021).","journal-title":"Harv. Kennedy Sch. Misinformation Rev."},{"key":"93100_CR22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1131","DOI":"10.1080\/10410236.2017.1331312","volume":"33","author":"L Bode","year":"2018","unstructured":"Bode, L. & Vraga, E. K. See something, say something: Correction of global health misinformation on social media. Health Commun. 33, 1131\u20131140 (2018).","journal-title":"Health Commun."},{"key":"93100_CR23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1656","DOI":"10.1108\/JBIM-02-2022-0066","volume":"38","author":"K Kaur","year":"2022","unstructured":"Kaur, K. & Gupta, S. Towards dissemination, detection and combating misinformation on social media: A literature review. J. Bus. Ind. Mark. 38, 1656\u20131674 (2022).","journal-title":"J. Bus. Ind. Mark."},{"key":"93100_CR24","unstructured":"Wagner, K. Inside Twitter\u2019s plan to fact-check tweets. Bloomberg.com (2021)."},{"key":"93100_CR25","unstructured":"Barthel, M., Mitchell, A. & Holcomb, J. Many Americans believe fake news is sowing confusion. Pew Research Center\u2019s Journalism Project https:\/\/www.pewresearch.org\/journalism\/2016\/12\/15\/many-americans-believe-fake-news-is-sowing-confusion\/ (2016)."},{"key":"93100_CR26","unstructured":"Watson, A. Sharing of made-up news on social networks in the U.S. 2020. Statista https:\/\/www.statista.com\/statistics\/657111\/fake-news-sharing-online\/ (2022)."},{"key":"93100_CR27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1038\/s44159-021-00006-y","volume":"1","author":"UKH Ecker","year":"2022","unstructured":"Ecker, U. K. H. et al. The psychological drivers of misinformation belief and its resistance to correction. Nat. Rev. Psychol. 1, 13\u201329 (2022).","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Psychol."},{"key":"93100_CR28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"583","DOI":"10.1016\/j.acalib.2015.07.003","volume":"41","author":"X Chen","year":"2015","unstructured":"Chen, X., Sin, S.-C.J., Theng, Y.-L. & Lee, C. S. Why students share misinformation on social media: Motivation, gender, and study-level differences. J. Acad. Librariansh. 41, 583\u2013592 (2015).","journal-title":"J. Acad. Librariansh."},{"key":"93100_CR29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-021-03344-2","author":"G Pennycook","year":"2021","unstructured":"Pennycook, G. et al. Shifting attention to accuracy can reduce misinformation online. Nature https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s41586-021-03344-2 (2021).","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"93100_CR30","volume-title":"The Organization of Hypocrisy: Talk, Decisions and Actions in Organizations","author":"N Brunsson","year":"1989","unstructured":"Brunsson, N. The Organization of Hypocrisy: Talk, Decisions and Actions in Organizations (Wiley, 1989)."},{"key":"93100_CR31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1636","DOI":"10.2105\/AJPH.81.12.1636","volume":"81","author":"E Aronson","year":"1991","unstructured":"Aronson, E., Fried, C. & Stone, J. Overcoming denial and increasing the intention to use condoms through the induction of hypocrisy. Am. J. Public Health 81, 1636\u20131638 (1991).","journal-title":"Am. J. Public Health"},{"key":"93100_CR32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1024","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1751-9004.2008.00088.x","volume":"2","author":"J Stone","year":"2008","unstructured":"Stone, J. & Fernandez, N. C. To practice what we preach: The use of hypocrisy and cognitive dissonance to motivate behavior change. Soc. Personal. Psychol. Compass 2, 1024\u20131051 (2008).","journal-title":"Soc. Personal. Psychol. Compass"},{"key":"93100_CR33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fointiat, V. \u2018I know what I have to do, but...\u2019 When hypocrisy leads to behavioral change. Soc. Behav. Personal. Int. J. 32, 741\u2013746 (2004).","DOI":"10.2224\/sbp.2004.32.8.741"},{"key":"93100_CR34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"381","DOI":"10.1177\/1464884919868325","volume":"21","author":"EC Tandoc","year":"2020","unstructured":"Tandoc, E. C., Lim, D. & Ling, R. Diffusion of disinformation: How social media users respond to fake news and why. Journalism 21, 381\u2013398 (2020).","journal-title":"Journalism"},{"key":"93100_CR35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"282","DOI":"10.1016\/j.amepre.2019.03.009","volume":"57","author":"BG Southwell","year":"2019","unstructured":"Southwell, B. G. et al. Misinformation as a misunderstood challenge to public health. Am. J. Prev. Med. 57, 282\u2013285 (2019).","journal-title":"Am. J. Prev. Med."},{"key":"93100_CR36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"227","DOI":"10.2307\/3033683","volume":"48","author":"PE Tetlock","year":"1985","unstructured":"Tetlock, P. E. Accountability: A social check on the fundamental attribution error. Soc. Psychol. Q. 48, 227\u2013236 (1985).","journal-title":"Soc. Psychol. Q."},{"key":"93100_CR37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"357","DOI":"10.1348\/0144666042037962","volume":"43","author":"D Langdridge","year":"2004","unstructured":"Langdridge, D. & Butt, T. The fundamental attribution error: A phenomenological critique. Br. J. Soc. Psychol. 43, 357\u2013369 (2004).","journal-title":"Br. J. Soc. Psychol."},{"key":"93100_CR38","first-page":"737","volume":"21","author":"J Lammers","year":"2010","unstructured":"Lammers, J., Stapel, D. A. & Galinsky, A. D. Power increases hypocrisy: Moralizing in reasoning. Immoral. Behav. Psychol. Sci. 21, 737\u2013744 (2010).","journal-title":"Immoral. Behav. Psychol. Sci."},{"key":"93100_CR39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1335","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-3514.72.6.1335","volume":"72","author":"CD Batson","year":"1997","unstructured":"Batson, C. D., Kobrynowicz, D., Dinnerstein, J. L., Kampf, H. C. & Wilson, A. D. In a very different voice: Unmasking moral hypocrisy. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 72, 1335\u20131348 (1997).","journal-title":"J. Pers. Soc. Psychol."},{"key":"93100_CR40","unstructured":"Ng, S. W. T. Self- and social corrections on instant messaging platforms. (2023)."},{"key":"93100_CR41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bridgman, A. et al. The causes and consequences of COVID-19 misperceptions: Understanding the role of news and social media. Harv. Kennedy Sch. Misinformation Rev. 1, (2020).","DOI":"10.37016\/mr-2020-028"},{"key":"93100_CR42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"eaaw7449","DOI":"10.1126\/sciadv.aaw7449","volume":"6","author":"JM Carey","year":"2020","unstructured":"Carey, J. M., Chi, V., Flynn, D. J., Nyhan, B. & Zeitzoff, T. The effects of corrective information about disease epidemics and outbreaks: Evidence from Zika and yellow fever in Brazil. Sci. Adv. 6, eaaw7449 (2020).","journal-title":"Sci. Adv."},{"key":"93100_CR43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"638","DOI":"10.1177\/1368430220985912","volume":"24","author":"JN Druckman","year":"2021","unstructured":"Druckman, J. N. et al. The role of race, religion, and partisanship in misperceptions about COVID-19. Group Process. Intergroup Relat. 24, 638\u2013657 (2021).","journal-title":"Group Process. Intergroup Relat."},{"key":"93100_CR44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1057\/s41599-021-00752-7","volume":"8","author":"S Vijaykumar","year":"2021","unstructured":"Vijaykumar, S. et al. How shades of truth and age affect responses to COVID-19 (Mis)information: Randomized survey experiment among WhatsApp users in UK and Brazil. Humanit. Soc. Sci. Commun. 8, 1\u201312 (2021).","journal-title":"Humanit. Soc. Sci. Commun."},{"key":"93100_CR45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"392","DOI":"10.1126\/science.ade7138","volume":"381","author":"S Gonz\u00e1lez-Bail\u00f3n","year":"2023","unstructured":"Gonz\u00e1lez-Bail\u00f3n, S. et al. Asymmetric ideological segregation in exposure to political news on Facebook. Science 381, 392\u2013398 (2023).","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"93100_CR46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"eabf1234","DOI":"10.1126\/sciadv.abf1234","volume":"7","author":"RK Garrett","year":"2021","unstructured":"Garrett, R. K. & Bond, R. M. Conservatives\u2019 susceptibility to political misperceptions. Sci. Adv. 7, eabf1234 (2021).","journal-title":"Sci. Adv."},{"key":"93100_CR47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gwia\u017adzi\u0144ski, P. et al. Psychological interventions countering misinformation in social media: A scoping review. Front. Psychiatry 13, (2023).","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyt.2022.974782"},{"key":"93100_CR48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1145\/3415211","volume":"4","author":"J Kirchner","year":"2020","unstructured":"Kirchner, J. & Reuter, C. Countering fake news: A comparison of possible solutions regarding user acceptance and effectiveness. Proc. ACM Hum. Comput. Interact. 4, 1\u201327 (2020).","journal-title":"Proc. ACM Hum. Comput. Interact."},{"key":"93100_CR49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"103","DOI":"10.1177\/1529100620946707","volume":"21","author":"A Kozyreva","year":"2020","unstructured":"Kozyreva, A., Lewandowsky, S. & Hertwig, R. Citizens versus the internet: Confronting digital challenges with cognitive tools. Psychol. Sci. Public Interest 21, 103\u2013156 (2020).","journal-title":"Psychol. Sci. Public Interest"},{"key":"93100_CR50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s11218-023-09777-z","author":"F D\u2019Errico","year":"2023","unstructured":"D\u2019Errico, F., Cicirelli, P. G., Corbelli, G. & Paciello, M. Addressing racial misinformation at school: A psycho-social intervention aimed at reducing ethnic moral disengagement in adolescents. Soc. Psychol. Educ. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s11218-023-09777-z (2023).","journal-title":"Soc. Psychol. Educ."},{"key":"93100_CR51","unstructured":"Mitchell, A. & Walker, M. More Americans now say government should take steps to restrict false information online than in 2018. Pew Research Center https:\/\/www.pewresearch.org\/fact-tank\/2021\/08\/18\/more-americans-now-say-government-should-take-steps-to-restrict-false-information-online-than-in-2018\/ (2021)."},{"key":"93100_CR52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.2210666120","volume":"120","author":"A Kozyreva","year":"2023","unstructured":"Kozyreva, A. et al. Resolving content moderation dilemmas between free speech and harmful misinformation. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 120, e2210666120 (2023).","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci."},{"key":"93100_CR53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"316","DOI":"10.1177\/0963721420915872","volume":"29","author":"NM Brashier","year":"2020","unstructured":"Brashier, N. M. & Schacter, D. L. Aging in an era of fake news. Curr. Dir. Psychol. Sci. 29, 316\u2013323 (2020).","journal-title":"Curr. Dir. Psychol. Sci."},{"key":"93100_CR54","unstructured":"Guess, A., Nyhan, B. & Reifler, J. Selective Exposure to Misinformation: Evidence from the consumption of fake news during the 2016 U.S. presidential campaign. https:\/\/about.fb.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/01\/fake-news-2016.pdf."},{"key":"93100_CR55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3953","DOI":"10.3758\/s13428-022-01999-x","volume":"55","author":"DJ Hauser","year":"2023","unstructured":"Hauser, D. J. et al. Evaluating CloudResearch\u2019s Approved Group as a solution for problematic data quality on MTurk. Behav. Res. Methods 55, 3953\u20133964 (2023).","journal-title":"Behav. Res. Methods"},{"key":"93100_CR56","unstructured":"Fraud Detection. Qualtrics Support https:\/\/www.qualtrics.com\/support\/https:\/\/wordpressstaging.qualtrics.com\/support\/survey-platform\/survey-module\/survey-checker\/fraud-detection\/."},{"key":"93100_CR57","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"400","DOI":"10.3758\/s13428-015-0578-z","volume":"48","author":"DJ Hauser","year":"2016","unstructured":"Hauser, D. J. & Schwarz, N. Attentive Turkers: MTurk participants perform better on online attention checks than do subject pool participants. Behav. Res. Methods 48, 400\u2013407 (2016).","journal-title":"Behav. Res. Methods"},{"key":"93100_CR58","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1023","DOI":"10.3758\/s13428-013-0434-y","volume":"46","author":"E Peer","year":"2014","unstructured":"Peer, E., Vosgerau, J. & Acquisti, A. Reputation as a sufficient condition for data quality on Amazon Mechanical Turk. Behav. Res. Methods 46, 1023\u20131031 (2014).","journal-title":"Behav. Res. Methods"},{"key":"93100_CR59","unstructured":"Auxier, B. & Anderson, M. Social Media Use in 2021. Pew Research Center: Internet, Science & Tech https:\/\/www.pewresearch.org\/internet\/2021\/04\/07\/social-media-use-in-2021\/ (2021)."},{"key":"93100_CR60","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"128","DOI":"10.3758\/s13423-017-1230-y","volume":"25","author":"FD Sch\u00f6nbrodt","year":"2018","unstructured":"Sch\u00f6nbrodt, F. D. & Wagenmakers, E.-J. Bayes factor design analysis: Planning for compelling evidence. Psychon. Bull. Rev. 25, 128\u2013142 (2018).","journal-title":"Psychon. Bull. Rev."},{"key":"93100_CR61","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"178","DOI":"10.3758\/s13423-016-1221-4","volume":"25","author":"JK Kruschke","year":"2018","unstructured":"Kruschke, J. K. & Liddell, T. M. The Bayesian New Statistics: Hypothesis testing, estimation, meta-analysis, and power analysis from a Bayesian perspective. Psychon. Bull. Rev. 25, 178\u2013206 (2018).","journal-title":"Psychon. Bull. Rev."},{"key":"93100_CR62","first-page":"189","volume":"5","author":"A Gelman","year":"2012","unstructured":"Gelman, A., Hill, J. & Yajima, M. Why we (Usually) don\u2019t have to worry about multiple comparisons. J. Res. Educ. Eff. 5, 189\u2013211 (2012).","journal-title":"J. Res. Educ. Eff."},{"key":"93100_CR63","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/wics.1420","volume":"10","author":"AA Neath","year":"2018","unstructured":"Neath, A. A., Flores, J. E. & Cavanaugh, J. E. Bayesian multiple comparisons and model selection. WIREs Comput. Stat. 10, e1420 (2018).","journal-title":"WIREs Comput. Stat."},{"key":"93100_CR64","unstructured":"Sch\u00f6nbrodt, F. D. & Stefan, A. M. BFDA: An R package for Bayes factor design analysis (version 0.5.0). (2019)."},{"key":"93100_CR65","volume-title":"Bayesian Cognitive Modeling: A Practical Course","author":"MD Lee","year":"2013","unstructured":"Lee, M. D. & Wagenmakers, E.-J. Bayesian Cognitive Modeling: A Practical Course (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2013)."},{"key":"93100_CR66","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"225","DOI":"10.3758\/PBR.16.2.225","volume":"16","author":"JN Rouder","year":"2009","unstructured":"Rouder, J. N., Speckman, P. L., Sun, D., Morey, R. D. & Iverson, G. Bayesian t tests for accepting and rejecting the null hypothesis. Psychon. Bull. Rev. 16, 225\u2013237 (2009).","journal-title":"Psychon. Bull. Rev."},{"key":"93100_CR67","unstructured":"Morey, R. D. et al. Package \u2018BayesFactor\u2019. (2022)."},{"key":"93100_CR68","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"347","DOI":"10.1007\/S40037-016-0308-Y","volume":"5","author":"J Leppink","year":"2016","unstructured":"Leppink, J., O\u2019Sullivan, P. & Winston, K. Effect size \u2013 large, medium, and small. Perspect. Med. Educ. 5, 347\u2013349 (2016).","journal-title":"Perspect. Med. Educ."},{"key":"93100_CR69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Robitzsch, A. Why ordinal variables can (almost) always be treated as continuous variables: Clarifying assumptions of robust continuous and ordinal factor analysis estimation methods. Front. Educ. 5, (2020).","DOI":"10.3389\/feduc.2020.589965"},{"key":"93100_CR70","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"527","DOI":"10.1080\/01488376.2017.1329775","volume":"43","author":"H Wu","year":"2017","unstructured":"Wu, H. & Leung, S.-O. Can likert scales be treated as interval scales?\u2014A simulation study. J. Soc. Serv. Res. 43, 527\u2013532 (2017).","journal-title":"J. Soc. Serv. Res."},{"key":"93100_CR71","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Howcroft, D. M. & Rieser, V. What happens if you treat ordinal ratings as interval data? Human evaluations in NLP are even more under-powered than you think. in Proceedings of the 2021 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing (eds. Moens, M.-F., Huang, X., Specia, L. & Yih, S. W.) 8932\u20138939 (Association for Computational Linguistics, Online and Punta Cana, Dominican Republic, 2021). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.18653\/v1\/2021.emnlp-main.703.","DOI":"10.18653\/v1\/2021.emnlp-main.703"},{"key":"93100_CR72","unstructured":"R Core Team. R: A Language and Environment for Statistical Computing. https:\/\/www.R-project.org\/ (2024)."},{"key":"93100_CR73","unstructured":"Posit team. RStudio: Integrated Development Environment for R. (2024)."},{"key":"93100_CR74","unstructured":"Auxier, B. 64% of Americans say social media have a mostly negative effect on the way things are going in the U.S. today. Pew Research Center https:\/\/www.pewresearch.org\/short-reads\/2020\/10\/15\/64-of-americans-say-social-media-have-a-mostly-negative-effect-on-the-way-things-are-going-in-the-u-s-today\/ (2020)."},{"key":"93100_CR75","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"15838","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1511536112","volume":"112","author":"S C\u00f4t\u00e9","year":"2015","unstructured":"C\u00f4t\u00e9, S., House, J. & Willer, R. High economic inequality leads higher-income individuals to be less generous. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 112, 15838\u201315843 (2015).","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci."},{"key":"93100_CR76","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"771","DOI":"10.1037\/a0020092","volume":"99","author":"PK Piff","year":"2010","unstructured":"Piff, P. K., Kraus, M. W., C\u00f4t\u00e9, S., Cheng, B. H. & Keltner, D. Having less, giving more: The influence of social class on prosocial behavior. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 99, 771\u2013784 (2010).","journal-title":"J. Pers. Soc. Psychol."},{"key":"93100_CR77","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"196","DOI":"10.1080\/07421222.2021.1870389","volume":"38","author":"H Gimpel","year":"2021","unstructured":"Gimpel, H., Heger, S., Olenberger, C. & Utz, L. The effectiveness of social norms in fighting fake news on social media. J. Manag. Inf. Syst. 38, 196\u2013221 (2021).","journal-title":"J. Manag. Inf. Syst."},{"key":"93100_CR78","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2196\/45583","volume":"25","author":"CM Jones","year":"2023","unstructured":"Jones, C. M. et al. Impact of social reference cues on misinformation sharing on social media: Series of experimental studies. J. Med. Internet Res. 25, e45583 (2023).","journal-title":"J. Med. Internet Res."},{"key":"93100_CR79","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.37016\/mr-2020-033","author":"M Avram","year":"2020","unstructured":"Avram, M., Micallef, N., Patil, S. & Menczer, F. Exposure to social engagement metrics increases vulnerability to misinformation. Harv. Kennedy Sch. Misinformation Rev. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.37016\/mr-2020-033 (2020).","journal-title":"Harv. Kennedy Sch. Misinformation Rev."},{"key":"93100_CR80","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"202","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chb.2019.03.032","volume":"97","author":"J Colliander","year":"2019","unstructured":"Colliander, J. \u201cThis is fake news\u201d: Investigating the role of conformity to other users\u2019 views when commenting on and spreading disinformation in social media. Comput. Hum. Behav. 97, 202\u2013215 (2019).","journal-title":"Comput. Hum. Behav."},{"key":"93100_CR81","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"611","DOI":"10.1037\/xge0001374","volume":"152","author":"MA Lawson","year":"2023","unstructured":"Lawson, M. A., Anand, S. & Kakkar, H. Tribalism and tribulations: The social costs of not sharing fake news. J. Exp. Psychol. Gen. 152, 611\u2013631 (2023).","journal-title":"J. Exp. Psychol. Gen."},{"key":"93100_CR82","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3490","DOI":"10.1080\/0144929X.2023.2281491","volume":"43","author":"H Zhou","year":"2024","unstructured":"Zhou, H., Lu, Y., Zhao, L., Wang, B. & Li, T. Effective reporting system to encourage users\u2019 reporting behavior in social media platforms: An empirical study based on structural empowerment theory. Behav. Inf. Technol. 43, 3490\u20133509 (2024).","journal-title":"Behav. Inf. Technol."},{"key":"93100_CR83","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"561","DOI":"10.1287\/isre.2020.0983","volume":"32","author":"RYM Wong","year":"2021","unstructured":"Wong, R. Y. M., Cheung, C. M. K., Xiao, B. & Thatcher, J. B. Standing up or standing by: Understanding Bystanders\u2019 proactive reporting responses to social media harassment. Inf. Syst. Res. 32, 561\u2013581 (2021).","journal-title":"Inf. Syst. Res."},{"key":"93100_CR84","unstructured":"Clark, M. Facebook wants to make sure you\u2019ve read the article you\u2019re about to share. The Verge https:\/\/www.theverge.com\/2021\/5\/10\/22429174\/facebook-article-popup-read-misinformation (2021)."},{"key":"93100_CR85","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.copsyc.2024.101813","volume":"57","author":"NM Brashier","year":"2024","unstructured":"Brashier, N. M. Fighting misinformation among the most vulnerable users. Curr. Opin. Psychol. 57, 101813 (2024).","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Psychol."},{"key":"93100_CR86","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cognition.2018.06.011","volume":"188","author":"G Pennycook","year":"2019","unstructured":"Pennycook, G. & Rand, D. G. Lazy, not biased: Susceptibility to partisan fake news is better explained by lack of reasoning than by motivated reasoning. Cognition 188, 39\u201350 (2019).","journal-title":"Cognition"},{"key":"93100_CR87","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"770","DOI":"10.1177\/0956797620939054","volume":"31","author":"G Pennycook","year":"2020","unstructured":"Pennycook, G., McPhetres, J., Zhang, Y., Lu, J. G. & Rand, D. G. Fighting COVID-19 misinformation on social media: Experimental evidence for a scalable accuracy-nudge intervention. Psychol. Sci. 31, 770\u2013780 (2020).","journal-title":"Psychol. Sci."},{"key":"93100_CR88","unstructured":"Simpson, S. Fake News: A Global Epidemic Vast Majority (86%) of Online Global Citizens Have Been Exposed to It. https:\/\/www.ipsos.com\/en-us\/news-polls\/cigi-fake-news-global-epidemic (2019)."},{"key":"93100_CR89","unstructured":"Seitz, A. & Fingerhut, H. Americans agree misinformation is a problem, poll shows. AP News https:\/\/apnews.com\/article\/coronavirus-pandemic-technology-business-health-misinformation-fbe9d09024d7b92e1600e411d5f931dd (2021)."},{"key":"93100_CR90","first-page":"1","volume":"15","author":"S H\u00f8jsgaard","year":"2006","unstructured":"H\u00f8jsgaard, S., Halekoh, U. & Yan, J. The R Package geepack for generalized estimating equations. J. Stat. Softw. 15, 1\u201311 (2006).","journal-title":"J. Stat. Softw."},{"key":"93100_CR91","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"120","DOI":"10.1111\/j.0006-341X.2001.00120.x","volume":"57","author":"W Pan","year":"2001","unstructured":"Pan, W. Akaike\u2019s information criterion in generalized estimating equations. Biometrics 57, 120\u2013125 (2001).","journal-title":"Biometrics"}],"container-title":["Scientific Reports"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41598-025-93100-7.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41598-025-93100-7","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41598-025-93100-7.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,19]],"date-time":"2025-03-19T18:40:58Z","timestamp":1742409658000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41598-025-93100-7"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,19]]},"references-count":91,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,12]]}},"alternative-id":["93100"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s41598-025-93100-7","relation":{},"ISSN":["2045-2322"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2045-2322","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,19]]},"assertion":[{"value":"15 February 2023","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"3 March 2025","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"19 March 2025","order":3,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"order":1,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"The authors declare no competing interests.","order":2,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Competing interests"}}],"article-number":"9475"}}