{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,17]],"date-time":"2026-08-17T21:54:42Z","timestamp":1787003682706,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":32,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,24]],"date-time":"2026-01-24T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1769212800000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,9]],"date-time":"2026-02-09T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1770595200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":16,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sci Rep"],"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>Eliminating dog-to-dog rabies virus transmission, the primary cause of &gt;\u200970,000 human deaths annually, remains a challenge in over 100 countries due to the difficulty of implementing effective dog vaccination and population management programs. Despite the development of tools to optimize vaccine impact, rabies virus transmission dynamics are still not well-understood, largely due to insufficient surveillance. Utilizing data from Haiti\u2019s advanced rabies surveillance system, we analyzed likely rabies cases, adjusted for a 5% detection rate, to estimate the true rabies burden in Haitian dogs. Our study calculated the effective reproduction number (Re) of rabies, finding strong associations between Re and free-roaming dog density, with Re falling below 1.0 when free-roaming dog density fell below 10 per km\u00b2. This association suggests that denser free-roaming dog populations may perpetuate rabies transmission, providing critical insights for targeting effective vaccination efforts.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-026-35359-y","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,24]],"date-time":"2026-01-24T17:14:06Z","timestamp":1769274846000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Higher free-roaming dog density sustains rabies virus transmission in Haiti"],"prefix":"10.1038","volume":"16","author":[{"given":"Andrew J.","family":"Beron","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ravikiran","family":"Keshavamurthy","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Cassandra","family":"Boutelle","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ryan","family":"Wallace","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,24]]},"reference":[{"key":"35359_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0003709","author":"K Hampson","year":"2015","unstructured":"Hampson, K. et al. Estimating the Global Burden of Endemic Canine Rabies. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pntd.0003709 (2015).","journal-title":"PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis."},{"key":"35359_CR2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fvets.2023.1147543","author":"SC Bonaparte","year":"2023","unstructured":"Bonaparte, S. C., Moodie, J., Undurraga, E. A. & Wallace, R. M. Frontiers | Evaluation of country infrastructure as an indirect measure of dog-mediated human rabies deaths. Front. Veterinary Sci. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fvets.2023.1147543 (2023).","journal-title":"Front. Veterinary Sci."},{"key":"35359_CR3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fitd.2024.1303359","author":"C Swedberg","year":"2024","unstructured":"Swedberg, C. et al. Eliminating invisible deaths: the woeful state of global rabies data and its impact on progress towards 2030 sustainable development goals for neglected tropical diseases. Front. Trop. Dis. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fitd.2024.1303359 (2024).","journal-title":"Front. Trop. Dis."},{"key":"35359_CR4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"185","DOI":"10.1016\/0264-410x(95)00197-9","volume":"14","author":"PG Coleman","year":"1996","unstructured":"Coleman, P. G. & Dye, C. Immunization coverage required to prevent outbreaks of dog rabies. Vaccine 14, 185\u2013186. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/0264-410x(95)00197-9 (1996).","journal-title":"Vaccine"},{"key":"35359_CR5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fpubh.2021.757668","author":"B Monroe","year":"2021","unstructured":"Monroe, B. et al. Every dog has its data: evaluation of a technology-aided canine rabies vaccination campaign to implement a microplanning approach. Front. Public Health https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fpubh.2021.757668 (2021).","journal-title":"Front. Public Health"},{"key":"35359_CR6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fvets.2017.00109","author":"LH Taylor","year":"2017","unstructured":"Taylor, L. H. et al. The role of dog population management in rabies elimination\u2014a review of current approaches and future opportunities. Front. Veterinary Sci. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fvets.2017.00109 (2017).","journal-title":"Front. Veterinary Sci."},{"issue":"5","key":"35359_CR7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"47","DOI":"10.3390\/tropicalmed5010047","volume":"5","author":"AD Gibson","year":"2020","unstructured":"Gibson, A. D. et al. Reviewing Solutions of Scale for Canine Rabies Elimination in India. Trop. Med. Infect. Disease 5(5), 47. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/tropicalmed5010047 (2020).","journal-title":"Trop. Med. Infect. Disease"},{"key":"35359_CR8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"548","DOI":"10.1038\/nrmicro1446","volume":"4","author":"EV Sokurenko","year":"2006","unstructured":"Sokurenko, E. V., Gomulkiewicz, R. & Dykhuizen, D. E. Source-sink dynamics of virulence evolution. Nat. Rev. Microbiol. 4, 548\u2013555. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/nrmicro1446 (2006).","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Microbiol."},{"key":"35359_CR9","first-page":"360","volume":"83","author":"DL Knobel","year":"2005","unstructured":"Knobel, D. L. et al. Re-evaluating the burden of rabies in Africa and Asia. Bull. World Health Organ. 83, 360\u2013368 (2005).","journal-title":"Bull. World Health Organ."},{"key":"35359_CR10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/jwmg.21869","author":"D Slate","year":"2020","unstructured":"Slate, D. et al. Rabies Management Implications Based on Raccoon Population Density Indexes. The J. Wildl. Manag. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/jwmg.21869 (2020).","journal-title":"The J. Wildl. Manag."},{"key":"35359_CR11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e0005249","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0005249","volume":"11","author":"SA Elmore","year":"2017","unstructured":"Elmore, S. A. et al. Management and modeling approaches for controlling raccoon rabies: the road to elimination. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis. 11, e0005249. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pntd.0005249 (2017).","journal-title":"PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis."},{"key":"35359_CR12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"6162","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vaccine.2020.06.006","volume":"38","author":"EA Undurraga","year":"2020","unstructured":"Undurraga, E. A. et al. Costs and effectiveness of alternative dog vaccination strategies to improve dog population coverage in rural and urban settings during a rabies outbreak. Vaccine 38, 6162\u20136173. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.vaccine.2020.06.006 (2020).","journal-title":"Vaccine"},{"key":"35359_CR13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"512","DOI":"10.1126\/science.abn0713","volume":"376","author":"R Mancy","year":"2022","unstructured":"Mancy, R. et al. Rabies shows how scale of transmission can enable acute infections to persist at low prevalence. Science 376, 512\u2013516. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1126\/science.abn0713 (2022).","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"35359_CR14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e0004245","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0004245","volume":"9","author":"RM Wallace","year":"2015","unstructured":"Wallace, R. M. et al. Establishment of a high canine rabies burden in Haiti through the implementation of a novel surveillance program [corrected]. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis. 9, e0004245. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pntd.0004245 (2015).","journal-title":"PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis."},{"key":"35359_CR15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Corbet, P. et al. What is rural? Examining the relationship between human populations and their inter-connectedness in the context of communicable disease transmission.\u00a0https:\/\/doi.org\/10.21203\/rs.3.rs-6648701\/v1\u00a0(2025-05-15).","DOI":"10.21203\/rs.3.rs-6648701\/v1\u00a0(2025-05-15)."},{"key":"35359_CR16","unstructured":"Foundation, O. OpenStreetMap database. https:\/\/www.openstreetmap.org\/\u00a0(2021)."},{"key":"35359_CR17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fvets.2023.1052349","author":"CA Schrodt","year":"2023","unstructured":"Schrodt, C. A. et al. Frontiers | Electronic application for rabies management improves surveillance, data quality, and investigator experience in Haiti. Front. Veterinary Sci. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fvets.2023.1052349 (2023).","journal-title":"Front. Veterinary Sci."},{"issue":"1","key":"35359_CR18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-024-76089-3","volume":"14","author":"R Keshavamurthy","year":"2024","unstructured":"Keshavamurthy, R. et al. Machine learning to improve the Understanding of rabies epidemiology in low surveillance settings. Sci. Rep. 14(1), 14. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s41598-024-76089-3 (2024).","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"35359_CR19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cimid.2012.10.008","author":"SE Townsend","year":"2013","unstructured":"Townsend, S. E. et al. Surveillance guidelines for disease elimination: A case study of canine rabies. Comparative Immunol. Microbiol. Infect. Diseases https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.cimid.2012.10.008 (2013).","journal-title":"Comparative Immunol. Microbiol. Infect. Diseases"},{"key":"35359_CR20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1433","DOI":"10.1111\/tbed.12531","volume":"64","author":"S Schildecker","year":"2017","unstructured":"Schildecker, S. et al. Dog ecology and barriers to canine rabies control in the Republic of Haiti, 2014\u20132015. Transbound. Emerg. Dis. 64, 1433\u20131442. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/tbed.12531 (2017).","journal-title":"Transbound. Emerg. Dis."},{"key":"35359_CR21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"14996","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0904740106","volume":"106","author":"J Zinsstag","year":"2009","unstructured":"Zinsstag, J. et al. Transmission dynamics and economics of rabies control in dogs and humans in an African City. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U S A. 106, 14996\u201315001. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1073\/pnas.0904740106 (2009).","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U S A"},{"key":"35359_CR22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e0006490","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0006490","volume":"12","author":"RH Borse","year":"2018","unstructured":"Borse, R. H. et al. Cost-effectiveness of dog rabies vaccination programs in East Africa. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis. 12, e0006490. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pntd.0006490 (2018).","journal-title":"PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis."},{"key":"35359_CR23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-021-92067-5","author":"A Kunkel","year":"2021","unstructured":"Kunkel, A. et al. The urgency of resuming disrupted dog rabies vaccination campaigns: a modeling and cost-effectiveness analysis. Sci. Rep. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s41598-021-92067-5 (2021).","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"35359_CR24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fpubh.2021.757668","author":"M B","year":"2021","unstructured":"B, M. et al. Every Dog Has Its Data: Evaluation of a Technology-Aided Canine Rabies Vaccination Campaign to Implement a Microplanning Approach - PubMed. Front. Public Health https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fpubh.2021.757668 (2021).","journal-title":"Front. Public Health"},{"key":"35359_CR25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e0010522","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0010522","volume":"16","author":"D Moran","year":"2022","unstructured":"Moran, D. et al. Heterogeneity in dog population characteristics contributes to chronic under-vaccination against rabies in Guatemala. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis. 16, e0010522. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pntd.0010522 (2022).","journal-title":"PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis."},{"key":"35359_CR26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e0005312","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0005312","volume":"11","author":"SP Johnstone-Robertson","year":"2017","unstructured":"Johnstone-Robertson, S. P., Fleming, P. J., Ward, M. P. & Davis, S. A. Predicted Spatial spread of canine rabies in Australia. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis. 11, e0005312. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pntd.0005312 (2017).","journal-title":"PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis."},{"key":"35359_CR27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e0010397","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0010397","volume":"16","author":"C Sararat","year":"2022","unstructured":"Sararat, C. et al. The effects of geographical distributions of buildings and roads on the Spatiotemporal spread of canine rabies: an individual-based modeling study. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis. 16, e0010397. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pntd.0010397 (2022).","journal-title":"PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis."},{"key":"35359_CR28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"6","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2656.2012.02033.x","volume":"82","author":"MK Morters","year":"2013","unstructured":"Morters, M. K. et al. Evidence-based control of canine rabies: a critical review of population density reduction. J. Anim. Ecol. 82, 6\u201314. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/j.1365-2656.2012.02033.x (2013).","journal-title":"J. Anim. Ecol."},{"key":"35359_CR29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"106331","DOI":"10.1016\/j.actatropica.2022.106331","volume":"229","author":"G Voupawoe","year":"2022","unstructured":"Voupawoe, G. et al. Preparing Liberia for rabies control: Human-dog relationship and practices, and vaccination scenarios. Acta Trop. 229, 106331. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.actatropica.2022.106331 (2022).","journal-title":"Acta Trop."},{"key":"35359_CR30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e0004824","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0004824","volume":"10","author":"AD Gibson","year":"2016","unstructured":"Gibson, A. D. et al. The vaccination of 35,000 dogs in 20 working days using combined static point and Door-to-Door methods in Blantyre, Malawi. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis. 10, e0004824. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pntd.0004824 (2016).","journal-title":"PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis."},{"key":"35359_CR31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1084","DOI":"10.2105\/ajph.40.9.1084","volume":"40","author":"ES Tierkel","year":"1950","unstructured":"Tierkel, E. S., Graves, L. M., Tuggle, H. G. & Wadley, S. L. Effective control of an outbreak of rabies in Memphis and Shelby County, Tennessee. Am. J. Public. Health Nations Health. 40, 1084\u20131088. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2105\/ajph.40.9.1084 (1950).","journal-title":"Am. J. Public. Health Nations Health"},{"key":"35359_CR32","first-page":"731","volume":"10","author":"C Wells","year":"1954","unstructured":"Wells, C. The control of rabies in Malaya through compulsory mass vaccination of dogs. Bull. World Health Organ. 10, 731 (1954).","journal-title":"Bull. World Health Organ."}],"container-title":["Scientific Reports"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41598-026-35359-y","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41598-026-35359-y.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41598-026-35359-y.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,16]],"date-time":"2026-06-16T17:06:55Z","timestamp":1781629615000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41598-026-35359-y"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,24]]},"references-count":32,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,12]]}},"alternative-id":["35359"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s41598-026-35359-y","relation":{},"ISSN":["2045-2322"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2045-2322","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,24]]},"assertion":[{"value":"16 September 2025","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"5 January 2026","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"24 January 2026","order":3,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"order":1,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"The authors declare no competing interests.","order":2,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Competing interests"}}],"article-number":"5543"}}