{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,1]],"date-time":"2026-10-01T05:10:56Z","timestamp":1790831456535,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":30,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,4]],"date-time":"2026-02-04T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1770163200000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,4]],"date-time":"2026-02-04T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1770163200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100006937","name":"National Center for Medical Rehabilitation Research","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["R01HD099176"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["R01HD099176"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100006937","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sci Rep"],"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>Social interaction supports brain health and recovery after neurological injury. Yet no validated tool exists for real-time measurement in individuals with and without neurological deficits. We developed SocialBit, a lightweight, privacy-preserving machine learning algorithm that detects social interactions using ambient audio features on a commercial smartwatch. In a prospective validation study, we evaluated SocialBit against livestream minute-by-minute human-coded ground truth in 153 hospitalized stroke patients who wore the device for up to 8 days, generating 88,918\u00a0min of observation. In these patients, the stroke severity and cognition spanned broad clinical ranges (NIH Stroke Scale 0\u201325; Montreal Cognitive Assessment 8\u201330), and 24 patients had aphasia across diverse subtypes, including severe presentations. SocialBit achieved high overall performance (sensitivity 0.87, specificity 0.88, area under the curve 0.94) and maintained accuracy in patients with language deficits (AUC 0.93). Despite lower temporal sampling, SocialBit produced interaction frequency distributions closely matching minute-by-minute human coding. Performance was robust across environments and interaction types. Of clinical relevance, SocialBit showed that patients with more severe strokes engaged in less social interaction, paralleling human-coded results. SocialBit is an accurate digital biomarker of social interaction with potential applications in remote monitoring and clinical trials.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-026-37746-x","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,4]],"date-time":"2026-02-04T10:02:53Z","timestamp":1770199373000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Validation of SocialBit as a smartwatch algorithm for social interaction detection in a clinical population"],"prefix":"10.1038","volume":"16","author":[{"given":"Amar","family":"Dhand","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Samuel","family":"Tate","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Cade","family":"Mack","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sofia","family":"Carozza","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"David","family":"Farynyk","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mehdi","family":"Bourahla","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Oluwamayomikun","family":"Adeboye","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Grace","family":"Cooke","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Olivia","family":"Berglund","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Riya","family":"Dahima","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Melinda","family":"Luo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Vrushali","family":"Dhongade","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"George S.","family":"Usmanov","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kelly","family":"White","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Amanda M.","family":"Bernal","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ross","family":"Zafonte","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Shrikanth","family":"Narayanan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Minwoo","family":"Lee","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Matthias R.","family":"Mehl","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Min","family":"Shin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,4]]},"reference":[{"key":"37746_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1344","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1145463","volume":"317","author":"RIM Dunbar","year":"2007","unstructured":"Dunbar, R. I. M. & Shultz, S. Evolution in the social brain. Science 317, 1344\u20131347 (2007).","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"37746_CR2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"693","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.psych.60.110707.163514","volume":"60","author":"R Adolphs","year":"2009","unstructured":"Adolphs, R. The social brain: neural basis of social knowledge. Annu. Rev. Psychol. 60, 693\u2013716 (2009).","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Psychol."},{"key":"37746_CR3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"816","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuron.2013.10.038","volume":"80","author":"DA Stanley","year":"2013","unstructured":"Stanley, D. A. & Adolphs, R. Toward a neural basis for social behavior. Neuron 80, 816\u2013826 (2013).","journal-title":"Neuron"},{"key":"37746_CR4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e2409985122","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.2409985122","volume":"122","author":"S Carozza","year":"2025","unstructured":"Carozza, S., Kletenik, I., Astle, D., Schwamm, L. & Dhand, A. Whole-brain white matter variation across childhood environments. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U S A. 122, e2409985122 (2025).","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U S A"},{"key":"37746_CR5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"572","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(24)01296-0","volume":"404","author":"G Livingston","year":"2024","unstructured":"Livingston, G. et al. Dementia prevention, intervention, and care: 2024 report of the lancet standing commission. Lancet 404, 572\u2013628 (2024).","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"37746_CR6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"227","DOI":"10.1177\/1745691614568352","volume":"10","author":"J Holt-Lunstad","year":"2015","unstructured":"Holt-Lunstad, J., Smith, T. B., Baker, M., Harris, T. & Stephenson, D. Loneliness and social isolation as risk factors for mortality: a meta-analytic review. Perspect. Psychol. Sci. 10, 227\u2013237 (2015).","journal-title":"Perspect. Psychol. Sci."},{"key":"37746_CR7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"976","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1751-9004.2011.00400.x","volume":"5","author":"L Beckes","year":"2011","unstructured":"Beckes, L. & Coan, J. A. Social baseline theory: the role of social proximity in emotion and economy of action. Soc. Pers. Psychol. Compass. 5, 976\u2013988 (2011).","journal-title":"Soc. Pers. Psychol. Compass"},{"key":"37746_CR8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"524","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1460-6984.2011.00079.x","volume":"46","author":"S Northcott","year":"2011","unstructured":"Northcott, S. & Hilari, K. Why do people lose their friends after a stroke? Int. J. Lang. Communication Disorders. 46, 524\u2013534 (2011).","journal-title":"Int. J. Lang. Communication Disorders"},{"key":"37746_CR9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41593-025-01981-8","author":"W Li","year":"2025","unstructured":"Li, W. et al. Changing genes, cells and networks to reprogram the brain after stroke. Nat. Neurosci. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s41593-025-01981-8 (2025).","journal-title":"Nat. Neurosci."},{"key":"37746_CR10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"861","DOI":"10.1038\/nrn2735","volume":"10","author":"TH Murphy","year":"2009","unstructured":"Murphy, T. H. & Corbett, D. Plasticity during stroke recovery: from synapse to behaviour. Nat. Rev. Neurosci. 10, 861\u2013872 (2009).","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Neurosci."},{"key":"37746_CR11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1005","DOI":"10.1161\/01.STR.0000120727.40792.40","volume":"35","author":"J Bernhardt","year":"2004","unstructured":"Bernhardt, J., Dewey, H., Thrift, A. & Donnan, G. Inactive and alone: physical activity within the first 14 days of acute stroke unit care. Stroke 35, 1005\u20131009 (2004).","journal-title":"Stroke"},{"key":"37746_CR12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e076297","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjopen-2023-076297","volume":"13","author":"K White","year":"2023","unstructured":"White, K. et al. SocialBit: protocol for a prospective observational study to validate a wearable social sensor for stroke survivors with diverse neurological abilities. BMJ Open. 13, e076297 (2023).","journal-title":"BMJ Open."},{"key":"37746_CR13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Choudhury, T. & Pentland, A. Sensing and modeling human networks using the sociometer. in Seventh IEEE International Symposium on Wearable Computers, 2003. Proceedings. 216\u2013222 (2003). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/ISWC.2003.1241414","DOI":"10.1109\/ISWC.2003.1241414"},{"key":"37746_CR14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"6","DOI":"10.1145\/1198302.1198308","volume":"3","author":"D Chen","year":"2007","unstructured":"Chen, D., Yang, J., Malkin, R. & Wactlar, H. D. Detecting social interactions of the elderly in a nursing home environment. ACM Trans. Multimedia Comput. Commun. Appl. 3, 6\u2013es (2007).","journal-title":"ACM Trans. Multimedia Comput. Commun. Appl."},{"key":"37746_CR15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"204","DOI":"10.1037\/pspp0000245","volume":"119","author":"GM Harari","year":"2020","unstructured":"Harari, G. M. et al. Sensing sociability: individual differences in young adults\u2019 conversation, calling, texting, and app use behaviors in daily life. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 119, 204\u2013228 (2020).","journal-title":"J. Pers. Soc. Psychol."},{"key":"37746_CR16","first-page":"1","volume":"7","author":"D Liang","year":"2023","unstructured":"Liang, D., Zhang, A. & Thomaz, E. Automated Face-To-Face conversation detection on a commodity smartwatch with acoustic sensing. Proc. ACM Interact. Mob. Wearable Ubiquitous Technol. 7, 1\u201329 (2023).","journal-title":"Proc. ACM Interact. Mob. Wearable Ubiquitous Technol."},{"key":"37746_CR17","unstructured":"Mobile Sensing in Psychology: Methods and Applications (The Guilford Press, 2024)."},{"key":"37746_CR18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"78","DOI":"10.1159\/000515346","volume":"5","author":"G Fagherazzi","year":"2021","unstructured":"Fagherazzi, G., Fischer, A., Ismael, M. & Despotovic, V. Voice for health: the use of vocal biomarkers from research to clinical practice. Digit. Biomark. 5, 78\u201388 (2021).","journal-title":"Digit. Biomark."},{"key":"37746_CR19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"791","DOI":"10.14283\/jpad.2022.66","volume":"9","author":"N Tavabi","year":"2022","unstructured":"Tavabi, N. et al. Cognitive digital biomarkers from automated transcription of spoken Language. J. Prev. Alzheimers Dis. 9, 791\u2013800 (2022).","journal-title":"J. Prev. Alzheimers Dis."},{"key":"37746_CR20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Alhanai, T., Au, R. & Glass, J. Spoken language biomarkers for detecting cognitive impairment. in IEEE Automatic Speech Recognition and Understanding Workshop (ASRU) 409\u2013416 (2017). 409\u2013416 (2017). (2017). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/ASRU.2017.8268965","DOI":"10.1109\/ASRU.2017.8268965"},{"key":"37746_CR21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"45","DOI":"10.1080\/03610730802545028","volume":"35","author":"KR Krueger","year":"2009","unstructured":"Krueger, K. R. et al. Social engagement and cognitive function in old age. Exp. Aging Res. 35, 45\u201360 (2009).","journal-title":"Exp. Aging Res."},{"key":"37746_CR22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"112783","DOI":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2020.112783","volume":"247","author":"D Christelis","year":"2020","unstructured":"Christelis, D. & Dobrescu, L. I. The causal effect of social activities on cognition: evidence from 20 European countries. Soc. Sci. Med. 247, 112783 (2020).","journal-title":"Soc. Sci. Med."},{"key":"37746_CR23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"401","DOI":"10.3389\/fneur.2019.00401","volume":"10","author":"N Kimura","year":"2019","unstructured":"Kimura, N. et al. Modifiable lifestyle factors and cognitive function in older people: A Cross-Sectional observational study. Front. Neurol. 10, 401 (2019).","journal-title":"Front. Neurol."},{"key":"37746_CR24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"136","DOI":"10.1055\/s-0042-1744532","volume":"42","author":"A Dhand","year":"2022","unstructured":"Dhand, A. et al. Leveraging social networks for the assessment and management of neurological patients. Semin Neurol. 42, 136\u2013148 (2022).","journal-title":"Semin Neurol."},{"key":"37746_CR25","unstructured":"Plakal, M., Ellis, D. & Yamnet GitHub (2020). https:\/\/github.com\/tensorflow\/models\/tree\/master\/research\/audioset\/yamnet"},{"key":"37746_CR26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Gemmeke, J. F. et al. Audio set: an ontology and human-labeled dataset for audio events. 2017 IEEE Int. Conf. Acoust. Speech Signal. Process. (ICASSP). 776-780 https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/ICASSP.2017.7952261 (2017).","DOI":"10.1109\/ICASSP.2017.7952261"},{"key":"37746_CR27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Howard, A. G. et al. MobileNets: Efficient Convolutional Neural Networks for Mobile Vision Applications. Preprint at (2017). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.48550\/arXiv.1704.04861","DOI":"10.48550\/arXiv.1704.04861"},{"key":"37746_CR28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hochreiter, S. & Schmidhuber, J. Long short-term memory. Neural Comput. 9, 1735\u20131780 (1997).","DOI":"10.1162\/neco.1997.9.8.1735"},{"key":"37746_CR29","unstructured":"Vaswani, A. et al. Attention is all you need. in Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems (ed (ed Guyon, I.) vol. 30 (Curran Associates, Inc., (2017)."},{"key":"37746_CR30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Snoek, J., Larochelle, H. & Adams, R. P. Practical Bayesian Optimization of Machine Learning Algorithms. Preprint at (2012). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.48550\/arXiv.1206.2944","DOI":"10.48550\/arXiv.1206.2944"}],"container-title":["Scientific Reports"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41598-026-37746-x.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41598-026-37746-x","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41598-026-37746-x.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,13]],"date-time":"2026-02-13T13:47:24Z","timestamp":1770990444000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41598-026-37746-x"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,4]]},"references-count":30,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,12]]}},"alternative-id":["37746"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s41598-026-37746-x","relation":{},"ISSN":["2045-2322"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2045-2322","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,4]]},"assertion":[{"value":"23 October 2025","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"24 January 2026","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"4 February 2026","order":3,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"order":1,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"AD reports consulting fees or stock from ECHAS and Availity. ST reports consulting fees from ECHAS. SC reports consulting fees from Availity. SN is Chief Scientist and Co-Founder with equity stake of Behavioral Signals, a technology company focused on creating technologies for emotional and behavioral machine intelligence in consumer services. He is Co-Founder with equity stake of Lyssn.io, a technology company focused on tools to support training, supervision, and quality assurance of psychotherapy and counseling. He is also a Visiting Faculty Researcher at Google DeepMind. All other authors declare no competing interests.","order":2,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Competing interests"}}],"article-number":"4529"}}