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The most recent documented epidemic occurred in 1966 in Sarab, East Azerbaijan Province. Historically, these outbreaks have significantly influenced demographic patterns, socioeconomic structures, and political developments. In response, extensive research has been conducted to investigate the diversity of\n                    <jats:italic>Yersinia pestis<\/jats:italic>\n                    -vectoring fleas (Siphonaptera) in Iran, resulting in the identification of 119 species and subspecies across diverse ecological zones. Despite these efforts, a comprehensive, up-to-date, and user-friendly set of morphological identification keys\u2014covering taxa from superfamily to subspecies level\u2014has been limited to outdated or regionally restricted resources. The present study addressed this critical gap by presenting fully illustrated dichotomous keys for Iranian fleas, based on detailed morphological characteristics of both male and female adults. High-resolution images, accompanied by precise annotations, emphasize diagnostic features essential for distinguishing sibling species and other morphologically similar taxa. The primary objective of this work is to enhance the accuracy of flea taxonomy and to strengthen surveillance and control programs targeting flea-borne diseases, particularly in Iran\u2019s plague-endemic areas.\n                  <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-026-39899-1","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,7]],"date-time":"2026-07-07T08:14:50Z","timestamp":1783412090000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Fully illustrated morphological keys to the fleas (Siphonaptera) of Iran from superfamily to subspecies level"],"prefix":"10.1038","volume":"16","author":[{"given":"Shahin","family":"Seidi","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Naseh","family":"Maleki-Ravasan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Roya","family":"Namaki-Khameneh","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ehsan","family":"Mostafavi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mehdi","family":"Assmar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Fateh","family":"Karimian","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Abbasali","family":"Raz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Anne","family":"Laudisoit","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,7]]},"reference":[{"key":"39899_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0003152","volume":"8","author":"H Leulmi","year":"2014","unstructured":"Leulmi, H. et al. 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