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Whether TBI inflammatory profile and outcomes differ in persons with concurrent latent infection with\n                    <jats:italic>Toxoplasma gondii<\/jats:italic>\n                    has not yet been elucidated in TBI patients, constituting the core of this study. Understanding the impact of chronic\n                    <jats:italic>T. gondii<\/jats:italic>\n                    infection on neuroinflammation after TBI may ensure better management and prognosis of TBI. This study aimed to investigate the inflammatory profile in TBI patients and investigate the influence of concurrent\n                    <jats:italic>T. gondii<\/jats:italic>\n                    infection on inflammatory markers and TBI outcomes. The level of inflammatory markers [interleukin (IL)-1\u03b2, IL-6, IL-10, interferon-gamma (INF-\u0263), Tumour necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-\u03b1)], and\n                    <jats:italic>Toxoplasma gondii<\/jats:italic>\n                    infection were detected in serum obtained\u2009&lt;\u200924\u00a0h post-injury. Glasgow Outcome Scale-Extended (GOSE) was used to evaluate the 6-month outcome post-discharge. The Wilcoxon and Kruskal-Wallis\u2019s rank sum tests were used to compare concentrations of inflammatory markers to\n                    <jats:italic>T. gondii infection<\/jats:italic>\n                    and TBI outcome.\n                    <jats:italic>T. gondii<\/jats:italic>\n                    infection was detected in 33% (52\/160) of TBI cases. There was a significant increase (\n                    <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\n                    \u2009&lt;\u20090.001) in the concentrations of all inflammatory markers (IM) in TBI patients compared with the healthy controls. Higher levels of IL-6, INF-\u0263, and TNF-\u03b1 were associated with mortality. Findings from this study show an increase in IM levels for all the\n                    <jats:italic>T. gondii-positive<\/jats:italic>\n                    TBI cases, which were significant for IL-1\u03b2 (\n                    <jats:italic>P<\/jats:italic>\n                    \u2009&lt;\u20090.001) and TNF-\u03b1 (\n                    <jats:italic>P<\/jats:italic>\n                    \u2009&lt;\u20090.001). IL-1\u03b2 and TNF-\u03b1, had significantly greater density values, above 30pg\/mL and 90pg\/mL, respectively, in TBI patients infected with\n                    <jats:italic>T. gondii<\/jats:italic>\n                    , compared to greater density values, below 30 pg\/mL and 90 pg\/mL, respectively, for TBI patients seronegative to\n                    <jats:italic>T. gondii.<\/jats:italic>\n                    Concurrent\n                    <jats:italic>T. gondii<\/jats:italic>\n                    infection in TBI significantly influenced the inflammation profile of patients. Further multicenter studies with larger sample sizes will provide more insights into\n                    <jats:italic>T. gondii<\/jats:italic>\n                    induced neuropathology and prognostication in TBI care.\n                  <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-026-40284-1","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,12]],"date-time":"2026-03-12T18:05:04Z","timestamp":1773338704000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Concurrent Toxoplasma gondii infection and neuroinflammation in traumatic brain injury patients in a referral hospital in Douala Cameroon"],"prefix":"10.1038","volume":"16","author":[{"given":"Franklin Chu","family":"Buh","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Germain Sotoing","family":"Taiwe","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Andrew I. 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