{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,26]],"date-time":"2026-04-26T23:36:57Z","timestamp":1777246617707,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":43,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,13]],"date-time":"2026-03-13T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1773360000000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-nd\/4.0"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,27]],"date-time":"2026-04-27T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1777248000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":45,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-nd\/4.0"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000923","name":"Australian Research Council","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["DE190100459"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["DE190100459"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000923","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"NUS FASS Start-Up Grant"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sci Rep"],"DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-026-43770-8","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,13]],"date-time":"2026-03-13T15:43:27Z","timestamp":1773416607000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Gaze perception under vertical asymmetries in illumination"],"prefix":"10.1038","volume":"16","author":[{"given":"Tamara","family":"Bowers","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Colin J.","family":"Palmer","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,13]]},"reference":[{"key":"43770_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"821","DOI":"10.1167\/4.9.11","volume":"4","author":"RO Dror","year":"2004","unstructured":"Dror, R. O., Willsky, A. S. & Adelson, E. H. Statistical characterization of real-world illumination. J. Vis. 4, 821\u2013837. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1167\/4.9.11 (2004).","journal-title":"J. Vis."},{"key":"43770_CR2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"12551","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1100794108","volume":"108","author":"Y Morgenstern","year":"2011","unstructured":"Morgenstern, Y., Murray, R. F. & Harris, L. R. The human visual system\u2019s assumption that light comes from above is weak. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 108, 12551\u201312553. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1073\/pnas.1100794108 (2011).","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A."},{"key":"43770_CR3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"163","DOI":"10.1038\/331163a0","volume":"331","author":"VS Ramachandran","year":"1988","unstructured":"Ramachandran, V. S. Perception of shape from shading. Nature 331, 163\u2013166. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/331163a0 (1988).","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"43770_CR4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"183","DOI":"10.1038\/630","volume":"1","author":"J Sun","year":"1998","unstructured":"Sun, J. & Perona, P. Where is the sun?. Nat. Neurosci. 1, 183\u2013184. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/630 (1998).","journal-title":"Nat. Neurosci."},{"key":"43770_CR5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cognition.2022.105172","volume":"225","author":"CJ Palmer","year":"2022","unstructured":"Palmer, C. J., Goddard, E. & Clifford, C. W. G. Face detection from patterns of shading and shadows: The role of overhead illumination in generating the familiar appearance of the human face. Cognition 225, 105172. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.cognition.2022.105172 (2022).","journal-title":"Cognition"},{"key":"43770_CR6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"17245","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0502205102","volume":"102","author":"T Farroni","year":"2005","unstructured":"Farroni, T. et al. Newborns\u2019 preference for face-relevant stimuli: Effects of contrast polarity. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 102, 17245\u201317250. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1073\/pnas.0502205102 (2005).","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A."},{"key":"43770_CR7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"365","DOI":"10.1068\/p210365","volume":"21","author":"A Johnston","year":"1992","unstructured":"Johnston, A., Hill, H. & Carman, N. Recognising faces: Effects of lighting direction, inversion, and brightness reversal. Perception 21, 365\u2013375. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1068\/p210365 (1992).","journal-title":"Perception"},{"key":"43770_CR8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"986","DOI":"10.1037\/0096-1523.22.4.986","volume":"22","author":"H Hill","year":"1996","unstructured":"Hill, H. & Bruce, V. Effects of lighting on the perception of facial surfaces. J. Exp. Psychol. Hum. Percept. Perform. 22, 986\u20131004. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1037\/0096-1523.22.4.986 (1996).","journal-title":"J. Exp. Psychol. Hum. Percept. Perform."},{"key":"43770_CR9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4003","DOI":"10.1016\/s0042-6989(99)00109-1","volume":"39","author":"CH Liu","year":"1999","unstructured":"Liu, C. H., Collin, C. A., Burton, A. M. & Chaudhuri, A. Lighting direction affects recognition of untextured faces in photographic positive and negative. Vision Res. 39, 4003\u20134009. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/s0042-6989(99)00109-1 (1999).","journal-title":"Vision Res."},{"key":"43770_CR10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1037\/xge0001697","volume":"154","author":"M Ramanathan","year":"2025","unstructured":"Ramanathan, M., Peterson, L. M. & Palmer, C. J. Illusory facial expressions caused by lighting direction. J. Exp. Psychol. Gen. 154, 1\u201317. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1037\/xge0001697 (2025).","journal-title":"J. Exp. Psychol. Gen."},{"key":"43770_CR11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"694","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-2909.133.4.694","volume":"133","author":"A Frischen","year":"2007","unstructured":"Frischen, A., Bayliss, A. P. & Tipper, S. P. Gaze cueing of attention: Visual attention, social cognition, and individual differences. Psychol. Bull. 133, 694\u2013724. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1037\/0033-2909.133.4.694 (2007).","journal-title":"Psychol. Bull."},{"key":"43770_CR12","volume-title":"Mindblindness: An Essay on Autism and Theory of Mind","author":"S Baron-Cohen","year":"1997","unstructured":"Baron-Cohen, S. Mindblindness: An Essay on Autism and Theory of Mind (MIT Press, 1997)."},{"key":"43770_CR13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"581","DOI":"10.1016\/S0149-7634(00)00025-7","volume":"24","author":"NJ Emery","year":"2000","unstructured":"Emery, N. J. The eyes have it: The neuroethology, function and evolution of social gaze. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 24, 581\u2013604 (2000).","journal-title":"Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev."},{"key":"43770_CR14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"247","DOI":"10.1037\/emo0000706","volume":"21","author":"O Semyonov","year":"2021","unstructured":"Semyonov, O., Ziv-El, A., Krumhuber, E. G., Karasik, S. & Aviezer, H. Beyond shared signals: The role of downward gaze in the stereotypical representation of sad facial expressions. Emotion 21, 247\u2013259. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1037\/emo0000706 (2021).","journal-title":"Emotion"},{"key":"43770_CR15","first-page":"328","volume":"65","author":"M Cook","year":"1997","unstructured":"Cook, M. Gaze and mutual gaze in social encounters. Am. Sci. 65, 328\u2013333 (1997).","journal-title":"Am. Sci."},{"key":"43770_CR16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2021.616471","volume":"12","author":"Z Degutyte","year":"2021","unstructured":"Degutyte, Z. & Astell, A. The role of eye gaze in regulating turn taking in conversations: A systematized review of methods and findings. Front. Psychol. 12, 616471. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fpsyg.2021.616471 (2021).","journal-title":"Front. Psychol."},{"key":"43770_CR17","unstructured":"Langton, S. R. H. In The Science of Social Vision (eds Adams, R. B., Ambady, N., Nakayama, K. & Shimojo, S.) (Oxford Scholarship Online, 2010)."},{"key":"43770_CR18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2018.02165","volume":"9","author":"CWG Clifford","year":"2018","unstructured":"Clifford, C. W. G. & Palmer, C. J. Adaptation to the direction of others\u2019 gaze: A review. Front. Psychol. 9, 2165. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fpsyg.2018.02165 (2018).","journal-title":"Front. Psychol."},{"key":"43770_CR19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"450","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conb.2012.11.014","volume":"23","author":"JD Carlin","year":"2013","unstructured":"Carlin, J. D. & Calder, A. J. The neural basis of eye gaze processing. Curr. Opin. Neurobiol. 23, 450\u2013455. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.conb.2012.11.014 (2013).","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Neurobiol."},{"key":"43770_CR20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1266","DOI":"10.1068\/p5745","volume":"36","author":"R Jenkins","year":"2007","unstructured":"Jenkins, R. The lighter side of gaze perception. Perception 36, 1266\u20131268. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1068\/p5745 (2007).","journal-title":"Perception"},{"key":"43770_CR21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"B1","DOI":"10.1016\/s0010-0277(00)00092-5","volume":"77","author":"P Ricciardelli","year":"2000","unstructured":"Ricciardelli, P., Baylis, G. & Driver, J. The positive and negative of human expertise in gaze perception. Cognition 77, B1-14. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/s0010-0277(00)00092-5 (2000).","journal-title":"Cognition"},{"key":"43770_CR22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1005","DOI":"10.1068\/p2908no","volume":"29","author":"P Sinha","year":"2000","unstructured":"Sinha, P. Here\u2019s looking at you, kid. Perception 29, 1005\u20131008. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1068\/p2908no (2000).","journal-title":"Perception"},{"key":"43770_CR23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1173","DOI":"10.1068\/p5297","volume":"33","author":"S Ando","year":"2004","unstructured":"Ando, S. Perception of gaze direction based on luminance ratio. Perception 33, 1173\u20131184. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1068\/p5297 (2004).","journal-title":"Perception"},{"key":"43770_CR24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"657","DOI":"10.1068\/p3332","volume":"31","author":"S Ando","year":"2002","unstructured":"Ando, S. Luminance-induced shift in the apparent direction of gaze. Perception 31, 657\u2013674. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1068\/p3332 (2002).","journal-title":"Perception"},{"key":"43770_CR25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"495","DOI":"10.1068\/p7343","volume":"42","author":"RW West","year":"2013","unstructured":"West, R. W. The effect of head turn and illumination on the perceived direction of gaze. Perception 42, 495\u2013507. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1068\/p7343 (2013).","journal-title":"Perception"},{"key":"43770_CR26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cognition.2020.104419","volume":"205","author":"CJ Palmer","year":"2020","unstructured":"Palmer, C. J., Otsuka, Y. & Clifford, C. W. G. A sparkle in the eye: Illumination cues and lightness constancy in the perception of eye contact. Cognition 205, 104419. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.cognition.2020.104419 (2020).","journal-title":"Cognition"},{"key":"43770_CR27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"671","DOI":"10.1068\/p270671","volume":"27","author":"NF Troje","year":"1998","unstructured":"Troje, N. F. & Siebeck, U. Illumination-induced apparent shift in orientation of human heads. Perception 27, 671\u2013680. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1068\/p270671 (1998).","journal-title":"Perception"},{"key":"43770_CR28","unstructured":"The Blender Foundation. Blender (Version 2.93) (2021). https:\/\/www.blender.org\/"},{"key":"43770_CR29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"478","DOI":"10.1109\/TPAMI.2009.30","volume":"32","author":"DW Hansen","year":"2010","unstructured":"Hansen, D. W. & Ji, Q. In the eye of the beholder: A survey of models for eyes and gaze. IEEE Trans. Pattern Anal. Mach. Intell. 32, 478\u2013500 (2010).","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Pattern Anal. Mach. Intell."},{"key":"43770_CR30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1001","DOI":"10.1177\/0956797620924814","volume":"31","author":"CJ Palmer","year":"2020","unstructured":"Palmer, C. J. & Clifford, C. W. G. Face pareidolia recruits mechanisms for detecting human social attention. Psychol. Sci. 31, 1001\u20131012. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/0956797620924814 (2020).","journal-title":"Psychol. Sci."},{"key":"43770_CR31","first-page":"231","volume":"7","author":"H Fesharaki","year":"2012","unstructured":"Fesharaki, H., Rezaei, L., Farrahi, F., Banihashem, T. & Jahanbkhshi, A. Normal interpupillary distance values in an Iranian population. J. Ophthalmic Vis. Res. 7, 231\u2013234 (2012).","journal-title":"J. Ophthalmic Vis. Res."},{"key":"43770_CR32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Dodgson, N. A. Variation and extrema of human interpupillary distance. In Proc. SPIE 5291, Stereoscopic Displays and Virtual Reality Systems XI (2004). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1117\/12.529999","DOI":"10.1117\/12.529999"},{"key":"43770_CR33","unstructured":"MathWorks. MATLAB (version R2021a) (2021). https:\/\/www.mathworks.com\/products\/matlab.html"},{"key":"43770_CR34","unstructured":"Kleiner, M., Brainard, D. & Pelli, D. \u201cWhat\u2019s new in Psychtoolbox-3?\u201d. Perception 36 ECVP Abstract Supplement (2007). https:\/\/pure.mpg.de\/rest\/items\/item_1790332\/component\/file_3136265\/content"},{"key":"43770_CR35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cognition.2021.104981","volume":"220","author":"CJ Palmer","year":"2022","unstructured":"Palmer, C. J., Bracken, S. G., Otsuka, Y. & Clifford, C. W. G. Is there a \u2018zone of eye contact\u2019 within the borders of the face?. Cognition 220, 104981. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.cognition.2021.104981 (2022).","journal-title":"Cognition"},{"key":"43770_CR36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"717","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cub.2013.03.030","volume":"23","author":"I Mareschal","year":"2013","unstructured":"Mareschal, I., Calder, A. J. & Clifford, C. W. Humans have an expectation that gaze is directed toward them. Curr. Biol. 23, 717\u2013721. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.cub.2013.03.030 (2013).","journal-title":"Curr. Biol."},{"key":"43770_CR37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1167\/13.5.18","volume":"13","author":"I Mareschal","year":"2013","unstructured":"Mareschal, I., Calder, A. J., Dadds, M. R. & Clifford, C. W. Gaze categorization under uncertainty: psychophysics and modeling. J. Vis. 13, 18. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1167\/13.5.18 (2013).","journal-title":"J. Vis."},{"key":"43770_CR38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2090","DOI":"10.1016\/j.visres.2008.03.020","volume":"48","author":"FA Kingdom","year":"2008","unstructured":"Kingdom, F. A. Perceiving light versus material. Vision Res. 48, 2090\u20132105. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.visres.2008.03.020 (2008).","journal-title":"Vision Res."},{"key":"43770_CR39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"8827","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.161280398","volume":"98","author":"SP MacEvoy","year":"2001","unstructured":"MacEvoy, S. P. & Paradiso, M. A. Lightness constancy in primary visual cortex. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 98, 8827\u20138831. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1073\/pnas.161280398 (2001).","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A."},{"key":"43770_CR40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"705","DOI":"10.1037\/0096-1523.33.3.705","volume":"33","author":"M Gamer","year":"2007","unstructured":"Gamer, M. & Hecht, H. Are you looking at me? Measuring the cone of gaze. J. Exp. Psychol. Hum. Percept. Perform. 33, 705\u2013715. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1037\/0096-1523.33.3.705 (2007).","journal-title":"J. Exp. Psychol. Hum. Percept. Perform."},{"key":"43770_CR41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"727","DOI":"10.1177\/0301006615594702","volume":"44","author":"RW West","year":"2015","unstructured":"West, R. W. Differences in the judged direction of gaze from heads imaged in 3-D versus 2-D. Perception 44, 727\u2013742. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/0301006615594702 (2015).","journal-title":"Perception"},{"issue":"11","key":"43770_CR42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1167\/7.11.11","volume":"7","author":"WJ Adams","year":"2007","unstructured":"Adams, W. J. A common light-prior for visual search, shape, and reflectance judgments. J. Vis. 7(11), 11\u201317. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1167\/7.11.11 (2007).","journal-title":"J. Vis."},{"key":"43770_CR43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"B1","DOI":"10.1016\/s0010-0277(01)00116-0","volume":"81","author":"P Mamassian","year":"2001","unstructured":"Mamassian, P. & Goutcher, R. Prior knowledge on the illumination position. Cognition 81, B1-9. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/s0010-0277(01)00116-0 (2001).","journal-title":"Cognition"}],"container-title":["Scientific Reports"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41598-026-43770-8","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41598-026-43770-8.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41598-026-43770-8.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,26]],"date-time":"2026-04-26T22:45:41Z","timestamp":1777243541000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41598-026-43770-8"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,13]]},"references-count":43,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,12]]}},"alternative-id":["43770"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s41598-026-43770-8","relation":{},"ISSN":["2045-2322"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2045-2322","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,13]]},"assertion":[{"value":"21 March 2025","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"6 March 2026","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"13 March 2026","order":3,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"order":1,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"The authors declare no competing interests.","order":2,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Competing interests"}}],"article-number":"13443"}}