{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,5]],"date-time":"2026-07-05T00:19:32Z","timestamp":1783210772715,"version":"3.54.6"},"reference-count":61,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,1]],"date-time":"2026-04-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1775001600000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,19]],"date-time":"2026-05-19T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1779148800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":48,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100009708","name":"Novo Nordisk Fonden","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["NNF23OC0082427"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NNF23OC0082427"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100009708","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100010269","name":"Wellcome Trust","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["203971\/Z\/16\/Z"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["203971\/Z\/16\/Z"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100010269","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100010269","name":"Wellcome Trust","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["109059\/Z\/15\/Z"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["109059\/Z\/15\/Z"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100010269","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100010269","name":"Wellcome Trust","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["098461\/Z\/12\/Z"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["098461\/Z\/12\/Z"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100010269","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Berrow Foundation","award":["Lord Florey Scholarship"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["Lord Florey Scholarship"]}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000265","name":"Medical Research Council","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["MR\/N026039\/1"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["MR\/N026039\/1"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000265","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100004789","name":"John Fell Fund, University of Oxford","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["131\/032"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["131\/032"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100004789","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000268","name":"Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["BB\/X008711\/1"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["BB\/X008711\/1"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000268","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sci Rep"],"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>Non-rapid eye movement (NREM) sleep is not uniform but characterized by brief intrusions of wake-like brain activity and increased muscle tonus known as micro-arousals or brief awakenings. Although micro-arousals are an inherent feature of human and animal sleep, knowledge about the neural correlates of micro-arousals is sparse. We here developed an algorithm for automatic detection of micro-arousals based on EMG activity and used it to analyse the associated laminar neural activity in the motor cortex in mice. Our analysis showed that short micro-arousals with a duration below 5 s were associated with decreased cortical firing, while longer micro-arousals with a duration of 5\u201310 s were associated with increased firing in a similar manner to transitions to wakefulness. Analysis of single-channel firing showed that some channels exhibited increased activity immediately prior to micro-arousals, while others exhibited decreased activity. Slow wave activity (SWA, 1\u20134 Hz) immediately after micro-arousals was tightly correlated with sleep pressure and even surpassed average SWA levels during NREM sleep in sleep deprived animals. This study provides new insights into the neural mechanisms associated with micro-arousals and identifies a new link between sleep architecture and sleep homeostasis.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-026-45192-y","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,1]],"date-time":"2026-04-01T10:32:20Z","timestamp":1775039540000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Cortical firing dynamics during micro-arousals vary with sleep\/wake history and micro-arousal duration"],"prefix":"10.1038","volume":"16","author":[{"given":"Natalie L.","family":"Hauglund","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Lukas B.","family":"Krone","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Martin","family":"Kahn","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Cristina","family":"Blanco-Duque","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Vladyslav V.","family":"Vyazovskiy","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,1]]},"reference":[{"issue":"6","key":"45192_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"461","DOI":"10.1016\/S0987-7053(99)80016-1","volume":"28","author":"P Hal\u00e1sz","year":"1998","unstructured":"Hal\u00e1sz, P. Hierarchy of micro-arousals and the microstructure of sleep. Neurophysiol. Clin. 28(6), 461\u2013475. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/S0987-7053(99)80016-1 (1998).","journal-title":"Neurophysiol. Clin."},{"key":"45192_CR2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuron.2024.12.009","author":"A L\u00fcthi","year":"2025","unstructured":"L\u00fcthi, A. & Nedergaard, M. Anything but small: Microarousals stand at the crossroad between noradrenaline signaling and key sleep functions. Neuron https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.neuron.2024.12.009 (2025).","journal-title":"Neuron"},{"key":"45192_CR3","first-page":"2115","volume":"02115","author":"A Rechtschaffen","year":"1968","unstructured":"Rechtschaffen, A. & Kales, A. A manual of standardised terminology, techniques, and scoring system for sleep stages of human subjects. Los Angelos UCLA Brain Inf. Serv. 02115, 2115 (1968).","journal-title":"Los Angelos UCLA Brain Inf. Serv."},{"issue":"4","key":"45192_CR4","first-page":"443","volume":"25","author":"JP Schieber","year":"1971","unstructured":"Schieber, J. P., Muzet, A. & Ferriere, P. J. Les phases d\u2019activation transitoires spontanees au tours du sommeil normal chez l\u2019homme [Phases of spontaneous transitory activation during normal sleep in humans]. Arch. Sci. Physiol. (Paris) 25(4), 443\u2013465 (1971).","journal-title":"Arch. Sci. Physiol. (Paris)"},{"issue":"1","key":"45192_CR5","first-page":"1","volume":"54","author":"P Hal\u00e1sz","year":"1979","unstructured":"Hal\u00e1sz, P., Kundra, O., Rajna, P., P\u00e1l, I. & Vargha, M. Micro-arousals during nocturnal sleep. Acta Physiol. Acad. Sci. Hung. 54(1), 1\u201312 (1979).","journal-title":"Acta Physiol. Acad. Sci. Hung."},{"issue":"25","key":"45192_CR6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"5711","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.3882-03.2004","volume":"24","author":"C L\u00e9na","year":"2004","unstructured":"L\u00e9na, C. et al. Beta2-containing nicotinic receptors contribute to the organization of sleep and regulate putative micro-arousals in mice. J. Neurosci. 24(25), 5711\u20135718. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.3882-03.2004 (2004).","journal-title":"J. Neurosci."},{"issue":"1","key":"45192_CR7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-023-36643-5","volume":"14","author":"L Bojarskaite","year":"2023","unstructured":"Bojarskaite, L. et al. Sleep cycle-dependent vascular dynamics in male mice and the predicted effects on perivascular cerebrospinal fluid flow and solute transport. Nat. Commun. 14(1), 953. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s41467-023-36643-5 (2023).","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"issue":"3","key":"45192_CR8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"606","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2024.11.027","volume":"188","author":"NL Hauglund","year":"2025","unstructured":"Hauglund, N. L. et al. Norepinephrine-mediated slow vasomotion drives glymphatic clearance during sleep. Cell 188(3), 606-622.e17. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.cell.2024.11.027 (2025).","journal-title":"Cell"},{"issue":"1, 2","key":"45192_CR9","first-page":"R198","volume":"261","author":"P Franken","year":"1991","unstructured":"Franken, P., Dijk, D. J., Tobler, I. & Borbely, A. A. Sleep-deprivation in rats - Effects on EEG power spectra, vigilance states, and cortical temperature. Am. J. Physiol. 261(1, 2), R198\u2013R208 (1991).","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol."},{"issue":"52","key":"45192_CR10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"18195","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0408089101","volume":"101","author":"J Lee","year":"2004","unstructured":"Lee, J., Kim, D. & Shin, H. S. Lack of delta waves and sleep disturbances during non-rapid eye movement sleep in mice lacking \u03b11 G -subunit of t-type calcium channels. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 101(52), 18195\u201318199. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1073\/pnas.0408089101 (2004).","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A."},{"issue":"3","key":"45192_CR11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"203","DOI":"10.1177\/1073858413518152","volume":"20","author":"VV Vyazovskiy","year":"2014","unstructured":"Vyazovskiy, V. V. & Delogu, A. NREM and REM sleep: Complementary roles in recovery after wakefulness. Neuroscientist 20(3), 203\u2013219. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/1073858413518152 (2014).","journal-title":"Neuroscientist"},{"issue":"22","key":"45192_CR12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"5009","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cub.2021.09.041","volume":"31","author":"A Osorio-Forero","year":"2021","unstructured":"Osorio-Forero, A. et al. Noradrenergic circuit control of non-REM sleep substates. Curr. Biol. 31(22), 5009\u20135023. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.cub.2021.09.041 (2021).","journal-title":"Curr. Biol."},{"issue":"8","key":"45192_CR13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1059","DOI":"10.1038\/s41593-022-01102-9","volume":"25","author":"C Kjaerby","year":"2022","unstructured":"Kjaerby, C. et al. Memory-enhancing properties of sleep depend on the oscillatory amplitude of norepinephrine. Nat. Neurosci. 25(8), 1059\u20131070. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s41593-022-01102-9 (2022).","journal-title":"Nat. Neurosci."},{"issue":"45","key":"45192_CR14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.2123528119","volume":"119","author":"H Antila","year":"2022","unstructured":"Antila, H. et al. A noradrenergic-hypothalamic neural substrate for stress-induced sleep disturbances. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 119(45), 1\u201312. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1073\/pnas.2123528119 (2022).","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A."},{"issue":"1","key":"45192_CR15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-025-57289-5","volume":"16","author":"M Carro-Dom\u00ednguez","year":"2025","unstructured":"Carro-Dom\u00ednguez, M. et al. Pupil size reveals arousal level fluctuations in human sleep. Nat. Commun. 16(1), 2070. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s41467-025-57289-5 (2025).","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"issue":"1","key":"45192_CR16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"84","DOI":"10.1038\/s41593-024-01822-0","volume":"28","author":"A Osorio-Forero","year":"2025","unstructured":"Osorio-Forero, A. et al. Infraslow noradrenergic locus coeruleus activity fluctuations are gatekeepers of the NREM\u2013REM sleep cycle. Nat Neurosci. 28(1), 84\u201396. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s41593-024-01822-0 (2025).","journal-title":"Nat Neurosci."},{"issue":"1","key":"45192_CR17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-019-42100-5","volume":"9","author":"GZ dos Santos Lima","year":"2019","unstructured":"dos Santos Lima, G. Z. et al. Hippocampal and cortical communication around micro-arousals in slow-wave sleep. Sci. Rep. 9(1), 5876. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s41598-019-42100-5 (2019).","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"issue":"2","key":"45192_CR18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"185","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1365-2869.2000.00197.x","volume":"9","author":"JJ Quattrochi","year":"2000","unstructured":"Quattrochi, J. J., Shapiro, J., Verrier, R. L. & Hobson, J. A. Transient cardiorespiratory events during NREM sleep: A feline model for human microarousals. J. Sleep Res. 9(2), 185\u2013191. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1046\/j.1365-2869.2000.00197.x (2000).","journal-title":"J. Sleep Res."},{"key":"45192_CR19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyt.2018.00255","volume":"9","author":"C della Monica","year":"2018","unstructured":"della Monica, C., Johnsen, S., Atzori, G., Groeger, J. A. & Dijk, D. J. Rapid eye movement sleep, sleep continuity and slow wave sleep as predictors of cognition, mood, and subjective sleep quality in healthy men and women, aged 20\u201384 years. Front. Psychiatry. 9, 1\u201317. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fpsyt.2018.00255 (2018).","journal-title":"Front. Psychiatry."},{"issue":"4","key":"45192_CR20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"326","DOI":"10.1093\/sleep\/7.4.326","volume":"7","author":"L Rosenthal","year":"1984","unstructured":"Rosenthal, L. et al. Periodic movements during sleep, sleep fragmentation, and sleep-wake complaints. Sleep 7(4), 326\u2013330. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/sleep\/7.4.326 (1984).","journal-title":"Sleep"},{"key":"45192_CR21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/sleep\/21.4.361","author":"M Boselli","year":"1998","unstructured":"Boselli, M., Parrino, L., Smerieri, A. & Terzano, M. G. Effect of age on EEG arousals in normal sleep. Sleep https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/sleep\/21.4.361 (1998).","journal-title":"Sleep"},{"key":"45192_CR22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/sleep\/zsac282","author":"P Champetier","year":"2022","unstructured":"Champetier, P. et al. Age-related changes in fast spindle clustering during non-rapid eye movement sleep and their relevance for memory consolidation. Sleep https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/sleep\/zsac282 (2022).","journal-title":"Sleep"},{"issue":"21","key":"45192_CR23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2088","DOI":"10.1093\/eurheartj\/ehab151","volume":"42","author":"SS Shahrbabaki","year":"2021","unstructured":"Shahrbabaki, S. S., Linz, D., Hartmann, S., Redline, S. & Baumert, M. Sleep arousal burden is associated with long-term all-cause and cardiovascular mortality in 8001 community-dwelling older men and women. Eur. Heart J. 42(21), 2088\u20132099. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/eurheartj\/ehab151 (2021).","journal-title":"Eur. Heart J."},{"issue":"3","key":"45192_CR24","first-page":"195","volume":"1","author":"AA Borb\u00e9ly","year":"1982","unstructured":"Borb\u00e9ly, A. A. Two process model of sleep regulation. Hum. Neurobiol. 1(3), 195\u2013204 (1982).","journal-title":"Hum. Neurobiol."},{"key":"45192_CR25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-444-53839-0.00002-8","volume":"193","author":"VV Vyazovskiy","year":"2011","unstructured":"Vyazovskiy, V. V., Cirelli, C. & Tononi, G. Electrophysiological correlates of sleep homeostasis in freely behaving rats. Progress Brain Res. 193, 17\u201338. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/B978-0-444-53839-0.00002-8 (2011).","journal-title":"Progress Brain Res."},{"issue":"49","key":"45192_CR26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"12436","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.1614-16.2016","volume":"36","author":"AV Rodriguez","year":"2016","unstructured":"Rodriguez, A. V. et al. Why does sleep slow-wave activity increase after extended wake? Assessing the effects of increased cortical firing during wake and sleep. J. Neurosci. 36(49), 12436\u201312447. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.1614-16.2016 (2016).","journal-title":"J. Neurosci."},{"issue":"6","key":"45192_CR27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1068","DOI":"10.1093\/sleep\/27.6.1068","volume":"27","author":"E Sforza","year":"2004","unstructured":"Sforza, E., Chapotot, F., Pigeau, R., Naitoh, P. & Buguet, A. Effects of sleep deprivation on spontaneous arousals in humans. Sleep 27(6), 1068\u20131075. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/sleep\/27.6.1068 (2004).","journal-title":"Sleep"},{"issue":"5","key":"45192_CR28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"885","DOI":"10.1016\/0031-9384(93)90297-S","volume":"54","author":"P Franken","year":"1993","unstructured":"Franken, P., Tobler, I. & Borb\u00e9ly, A. A. Effects of 12-h sleep deprivation and of 12-h cold exposure on sleep regulation and cortical temperature in the rat. Physiol. Behav. 54(5), 885\u2013894. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/0031-9384(93)90297-S (1993).","journal-title":"Physiol. Behav."},{"issue":"1-2","key":"45192_CR29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.1016\/S0006-8993(99)02248-9","volume":"857","author":"R Huber","year":"2000","unstructured":"Huber, R., Deboer, T. & Tobler, I. Effects of sleep deprivation on sleep and sleep EEG in three mouse strains: Empirical data and simulations. Brain Res. 857(1\u20132), 8\u201319. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/S0006-8993(99)02248-9 (2000).","journal-title":"Brain Res."},{"issue":"9","key":"45192_CR30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1210","DOI":"10.1038\/s41593-021-00894-6","volume":"24","author":"LB Krone","year":"2021","unstructured":"Krone, L. B. et al. A role for the cortex in sleep\u2013wake regulation. Nat. Neurosci. 24(9), 1210\u20131215. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s41593-021-00894-6 (2021).","journal-title":"Nat. Neurosci."},{"issue":"36","key":"45192_CR31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/sciadv.adn6247","volume":"10","author":"C Blanco-Duque","year":"2024","unstructured":"Blanco-Duque, C. et al. Oscillatory-quality of sleep spindles links brain state with sleep regulation and function. Sci. Adv. 10(36), eadn6247. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1126\/sciadv.adn6247 (2024).","journal-title":"Sci. Adv."},{"issue":"1","key":"45192_CR32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/s12868-023-00780-w","volume":"24","author":"CD Harding","year":"2023","unstructured":"Harding, C. D. et al. Detection of neuronal OFF periods as low amplitude neural activity segments. BMC Neurosci. 24(1), 13. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s12868-023-00780-w (2023).","journal-title":"BMC Neurosci."},{"issue":"6","key":"45192_CR33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"865","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuron.2009.08.024","volume":"63","author":"VV Vyazovskiy","year":"2009","unstructured":"Vyazovskiy, V. V. et al. Cortical firing and sleep homeostasis. Neuron 63(6), 865\u2013878. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.neuron.2009.08.024 (2009).","journal-title":"Neuron"},{"issue":"4","key":"45192_CR34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"692","DOI":"10.1152\/ajplegacy.1937.119.4.692","volume":"119","author":"H Blake","year":"1937","unstructured":"Blake, H. & Gerard, R. W. Brain potentials during sleep. Am. J. Physiol. 119(4), 692\u2013703 (1937).","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol."},{"key":"45192_CR35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"205","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-444-52006-7.00013-7","volume":"98","author":"AA Borb\u00e9ly","year":"2011","unstructured":"Borb\u00e9ly, A. A. & Tobler, I. Manifestations and functional implications of sleep homeostasis. Handb. Clin. Neurol. 98, 205\u2013213. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/B978-0-444-52006-7.00013-7 (2011).","journal-title":"Handb. Clin. Neurol."},{"issue":"6","key":"45192_CR36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1253","DOI":"10.1037\/0735-7044.118.6.1253","volume":"118","author":"MS Blumberg","year":"2004","unstructured":"Blumberg, M. S., Middlemis-Brown, J. E. & Johnson, E. D. Sleep homeostasis in infant rats. Behav. Neurosci. 118(6), 1253\u20131261. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1037\/0735-7044.118.6.1253 (2004).","journal-title":"Behav. Neurosci."},{"issue":"3","key":"45192_CR37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"396","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cub.2015.11.062","volume":"26","author":"CM Funk","year":"2016","unstructured":"Funk, C. M., Honjoh, S., Rodriguez, A. V., Cirelli, C. & Tononi, G. Local slow waves in superficial layers of primary cortical areas during REM sleep. Curr. Biol. 26(3), 396\u2013403. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.cub.2015.11.062 (2016).","journal-title":"Curr. Biol."},{"key":"45192_CR38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fnsys.2019.00051","volume":"13","author":"S Soltani","year":"2019","unstructured":"Soltani, S. et al. Sleep-wake cycle in young and older mice. Front. Syst. Neurosci. 13, 51. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fnsys.2019.00051 (2019).","journal-title":"Front. Syst. Neurosci."},{"issue":"4","key":"45192_CR39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"839","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuron.2016.03.036","volume":"90","author":"BO Watson","year":"2016","unstructured":"Watson, B. O., Levenstein, D., Greene, J. P., Gelinas, J. N. & Buzs\u00e1ki, G. Network homeostasis and state dynamics of neocortical sleep. Neuron 90(4), 839\u2013852. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.neuron.2016.03.036 (2016).","journal-title":"Neuron"},{"issue":"24","key":"45192_CR40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1172\/jci.insight.152858","volume":"6","author":"DO Chylinski","year":"2021","unstructured":"Chylinski, D. O. et al. Heterogeneity in the links between sleep arousals, amyloid-\u03b2, and cognition. JCI Insight 6(24), 1\u201314. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1172\/jci.insight.152858 (2021).","journal-title":"JCI Insight"},{"issue":"1","key":"45192_CR41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"143","DOI":"10.5665\/sleep.5336","volume":"39","author":"M Bellesi","year":"2016","unstructured":"Bellesi, M., Tononi, G., Cirelli, C. & Serra, P. A. Region-specific dissociation between cortical noradrenaline levels and the sleep\/wake cycle. Sleep 39(1), 143\u2013154. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.5665\/sleep.5336 (2016).","journal-title":"Sleep"},{"issue":"11","key":"45192_CR42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.celrep.2024.114977","volume":"43","author":"N Cankar","year":"2024","unstructured":"Cankar, N. et al. Sleep deprivation leads to non-adaptive alterations in sleep microarchitecture and amyloid-\u03b2 accumulation in a murine Alzheimer model. Cell Rep. 43(11), 114977. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.celrep.2024.114977 (2024).","journal-title":"Cell Rep."},{"key":"45192_CR43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1101\/2025.01.16.633402","author":"D Bergamo","year":"2025","unstructured":"Bergamo, D., Handjaras, G., Picchioni, D. & Ricciardi, E. Thalamic involvement defines distinct slow-wave subtypes in NREM sleep. bioRxiv https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1101\/2025.01.16.633402 (2025).","journal-title":"bioRxiv"},{"issue":"10","key":"45192_CR44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4173","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.23-10-04173.2003","volume":"23","author":"YW Lin","year":"2003","unstructured":"Lin, Y. W., Min, M. Y., Chiu, T. H. & Yang, H. W. Enhancement of associative long-term potentiation by activation of \u03b2-adrenergic receptors at CA1 synapses in rat hippocampal slices. J. Neurosci. 23(10), 4173\u20134181. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.23-10-04173.2003 (2003).","journal-title":"J. Neurosci."},{"issue":"2","key":"45192_CR45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"394","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuron.2016.12.039","volume":"93","author":"Y Liu","year":"2017","unstructured":"Liu, Y., Cui, L., Schwarz, M. K., Dong, Y. & Schl\u00fcter, O. M. Adrenergic gate release for spike timing-dependent synaptic potentiation. Neuron 93(2), 394\u2013408. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.neuron.2016.12.039 (2017).","journal-title":"Neuron"},{"issue":"10","key":"45192_CR46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2703","DOI":"10.1152\/jn.00374.2011","volume":"107","author":"H Qian","year":"2012","unstructured":"Qian, H. et al. \u03b22-Adrenergic receptor supports prolonged theta tetanus-induced LTP. J. Neurophysiol. 107(10), 2703\u20132712. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1152\/jn.00374.2011 (2012).","journal-title":"J. Neurophysiol."},{"issue":"7","key":"45192_CR47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1889","DOI":"10.1093\/cercor\/bht429","volume":"25","author":"N Hansen","year":"2015","unstructured":"Hansen, N. & Manahan-Vaughan, D. Locus Coeruleus stimulation facilitates long-term depression in the dentate gyrus that requires activation of -adrenergic receptors. Cereb. Cortex 25(7), 1889\u20131896. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/cercor\/bht429 (2015).","journal-title":"Cereb. Cortex"},{"issue":"9","key":"45192_CR48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2582","DOI":"10.1162\/jocn.2011.21622","volume":"23","author":"S Gais","year":"2011","unstructured":"Gais, S., Rasch, B., Dahmen, J. C., Sara, S. & Born, J. The memory function of noradrenergic activity in non-REM sleep. J. Cogn. Neurosci. 23(9), 2582\u20132592. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1162\/jocn.2011.21622 (2011).","journal-title":"J. Cogn. Neurosci."},{"key":"45192_CR49","unstructured":"Berry, R. B., et al. The AASM Manual for the Scoring of Sleep and Associated Events (Version 2.6) (2020)."},{"issue":"3","key":"45192_CR50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"269","DOI":"10.1016\/0013-4694(64)90109-9","volume":"16","author":"HL Williams","year":"1964","unstructured":"Williams, H. L., Hammack, J. T., Daly, R. L., Dement, W. C. & Lubin, A. Responses to auditory stimulation, sleep loss and the EEG stages of sleep. Electroencephalogr. Clin. Neurophysiol. 16(3), 269\u2013279. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/0013-4694(64)90109-9 (1964).","journal-title":"Electroencephalogr. Clin. Neurophysiol."},{"issue":"3","key":"45192_CR51","first-page":"242","volume":"17","author":"P Philip","year":"1994","unstructured":"Philip, P., Stoohs, R. & Guilleminault, C. Sleep fragmentation in normals: A model for sleepiness associated with upper airway resistance syndrome. Sleep 17(3), 242\u2013247 (1994).","journal-title":"Sleep"},{"key":"45192_CR52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/sciadv.adw6375","author":"N Matosevich","year":"2025","unstructured":"Matosevich, N. et al. An early surge of norepinephrine along brainstem pathways drives sensory-evoked awakening. Sci. Adv. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1126\/sciadv.adw6375 (2025).","journal-title":"Sci. Adv."},{"issue":"2","key":"45192_CR53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"145","DOI":"10.1097\/00004691-199603000-00005","volume":"13","author":"MG Terzano","year":"1996","unstructured":"Terzano, M. G., Parrino, L., Boselli, M., Spaggiari, M. C. & Di Giovanni, G. Polysomnographic analysis of arousal responses in obstructive sleep apnea syndrome by means of the cyclic alternating pattern. J. Clin. Neurophysiol. 13(2), 145\u2013155. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1097\/00004691-199603000-00005 (1996).","journal-title":"J. Clin. Neurophysiol."},{"issue":"5","key":"45192_CR54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"347","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1600-0404.1996.tb07078.x","volume":"94","author":"DW Droste","year":"1996","unstructured":"Droste, D. W., Krauss, J. K., Hagedorn, G. & Kaps, M. Periodic leg movements are part of the B-wave rhythm and the cyclic alternating pattern. Acta Neurol. Scand. 94(5), 347\u2013352. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/j.1600-0404.1996.tb07078.x (1996).","journal-title":"Acta Neurol. Scand."},{"issue":"16","key":"45192_CR55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3911","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.2513-17.2018","volume":"38","author":"LE McKillop","year":"2018","unstructured":"McKillop, L. E. et al. Effects of aging on cortical neural dynamics and local sleep homeostasis in mice. J Neurosci. 38(16), 3911\u20133928. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.2513-17.2018 (2018).","journal-title":"J Neurosci."},{"key":"45192_CR56","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"277","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jneumeth.2014.07.018","volume":"235","author":"S Bastianini","year":"2014","unstructured":"Bastianini, S. et al. SCOPRISM: A new algorithm for automatic sleep scoring in mice. J. Neurosci. Methods. 235, 277\u2013284. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.jneumeth.2014.07.018 (2014).","journal-title":"J. Neurosci. Methods."},{"issue":"5","key":"45192_CR57","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"815","DOI":"10.5665\/sleep.4682","volume":"38","author":"PA Libourel","year":"2015","unstructured":"Libourel, P. A., Corneyllie, A., Luppi, P. H., Chouvet, G. & Gervasoni, D. Unsupervised online classifier in sleep scoring for sleep deprivation studies. Sleep 38(5), 815\u2013828. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.5665\/sleep.4682 (2015).","journal-title":"Sleep"},{"key":"45192_CR58","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jneumeth.2016.02.016","volume":"264","author":"V Gao","year":"2016","unstructured":"Gao, V., Turek, F. & Vitaterna, M. Multiple classifier systems for automatic sleep scoring in mice. J. Neurosci. Methods 264, 33\u201339. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.jneumeth.2016.02.016 (2016).","journal-title":"J. Neurosci. Methods"},{"issue":"1","key":"45192_CR59","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"48","DOI":"10.1093\/sleep\/14.1.48","volume":"14","author":"RN Van Gelder","year":"1991","unstructured":"Van Gelder, R. N., Edgar, D. M. & Dement, W. C. Real-time automated sleep scoring: Validation of a microcomputer-based system for mice. Sleep 14(1), 48\u201355. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/sleep\/14.1.48 (1991).","journal-title":"Sleep"},{"issue":"36","key":"45192_CR60","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"14288","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.5102-12.2013","volume":"33","author":"M Bellesi","year":"2013","unstructured":"Bellesi, M. et al. Effects of sleep and wake on oligodendrocytes and their precursors. J. Neurosci. 33(36), 14288\u201314300. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.5102-12.2013 (2013).","journal-title":"J. Neurosci."},{"issue":"4","key":"45192_CR61","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"311","DOI":"10.1111\/apha.12134","volume":"208","author":"T Porkka-Heiskanen","year":"2013","unstructured":"Porkka-Heiskanen, T., Zitting, K. M. & Wigren, H. K. Sleep, its regulation and possible mechanisms of sleep disturbances. Acta Physiol. 208(4), 311\u2013328. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/apha.12134 (2013).","journal-title":"Acta Physiol."}],"container-title":["Scientific Reports"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41598-026-45192-y","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41598-026-45192-y.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41598-026-45192-y.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,16]],"date-time":"2026-06-16T21:18:55Z","timestamp":1781644735000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41598-026-45192-y"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,1]]},"references-count":61,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,12]]}},"alternative-id":["45192"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s41598-026-45192-y","relation":{},"ISSN":["2045-2322"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2045-2322","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,1]]},"assertion":[{"value":"16 May 2025","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"17 March 2026","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"1 April 2026","order":3,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"order":1,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"The authors declare no competing interests.","order":2,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Competing interests"}}],"article-number":"15391"}}