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Qualitative Congo red assay showed that\n                    <jats:italic>V. fluvialis<\/jats:italic>\n                    isolates were strong biofilm producers, whereas\n                    <jats:italic>V. alginolyticus<\/jats:italic>\n                    showed limited phenotypic variation. Quantitative assay results, analyzed with a Mann\u2013Whitney U test, showed no statistically significant difference in overall biofilm biomass between\n                    <jats:italic>V. alginolyticus<\/jats:italic>\n                    and\n                    <jats:italic>V. fluvialis<\/jats:italic>\n                    isolates (U\u2009=\u2009157.0,\n                    <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\n                    \u2009=\u20090.175). Seasonal variation affected biofilm formation, peaking in summer. CuNPs-TH4 exhibited the highest antibiofilm effect, significantly reducing the biomass (\n                    <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\n                    \u2009&lt;\u20090.01). The Minimum Inhibitory Concentration (MIC) was significantly different between disinfectants (\n                    <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\n                    \u2009&lt;\u20090.001), with CuNPs-TH\n                    <jats:sub>4<\/jats:sub>\n                    having the highest MIC values, followed by AgNPs-H\u2082O\u2082 and CuNPs-Virkon S. Minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC) values showed that AgNPs-H\u2082O\u2082 had the most consistent bactericidal activity in 85.4% of isolates tested (defined by MBC\/MIC\u2009\u2264\u20094). A significant association was observed between MIC values and\n                    <jats:italic>Vibrio<\/jats:italic>\n                    species (p\u2009=\u20090.002). Molecular detection of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) genes revealed a high prevalence of\n                    <jats:italic>sul<\/jats:italic>\n                    ,\n                    <jats:italic>cat<\/jats:italic>\n                    , and\n                    <jats:italic>mphA<\/jats:italic>\n                    , with\n                    <jats:italic>V. alginolyticus<\/jats:italic>\n                    exhibiting a broader resistance profile than\n                    <jats:italic>V. fluvialis<\/jats:italic>\n                    . These findings highlight the in vitro potential of nanotechnology-enhanced disinfectants, within the limitations of nanoparticle-only testing, as exploratory alternatives for controlling biofilm-associated\n                    <jats:bold>\n                      <jats:italic>Vibrio<\/jats:italic>\n                    <\/jats:bold>\n                    infections in aquaculture.\n                  <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-026-45352-0","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,15]],"date-time":"2026-04-15T10:31:25Z","timestamp":1776249085000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["In vitro comparative evaluation of disinfectant-loaded nanoparticles against biofilm-forming Vibrio spp. isolated from gilthead seabream (Sparus aurata)"],"prefix":"10.1038","volume":"16","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2212-3688","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Esraa Tawfeek","family":"Ismail","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mai A. 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