{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,1]],"date-time":"2026-05-01T19:09:11Z","timestamp":1777662551685,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":12,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,23]],"date-time":"2026-03-23T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1774224000000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-nd\/4.0"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,29]],"date-time":"2026-04-29T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1777420800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":37,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-nd\/4.0"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sci Rep"],"DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-026-45486-1","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,23]],"date-time":"2026-03-23T07:55:12Z","timestamp":1774252512000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Enhancing educational assessment through automated question classification using a RoBERTa-based ensemble model"],"prefix":"10.1038","volume":"16","author":[{"given":"Muhammad","family":"Hamid","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Saadia","family":"Malik","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Muhammad","family":"Saleem","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Ammar T.","family":"Zahary","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Ines Hilali","family":"Jaghdam","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,23]]},"reference":[{"key":"45486_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ebrahimi, M., Momen, A. & Hassan, A. M. Importance and Implications of Theory of Bloom\u2019s Taxonomy in Different Fields of Education, in ICETIS 2022, LNNS 573, 515\u2013525, (2023).","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-031-20429-6_47"},{"issue":"3","key":"45486_CR2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"380","DOI":"10.24093\/awej\/vol14no3.24","volume":"14","author":"S Nurmatova","year":"2023","unstructured":"Nurmatova, S. & Altun, M. A Comprehensive Review of Bloom\u2019s Taxonomy Integration to Enhancing Novice EFL Educators\u2019 Pedagogical Impact. Arab. World Engl. J. 14 (3), 380\u2013388 (2023).","journal-title":"Arab. World Engl. J."},{"issue":"3","key":"45486_CR3","first-page":"259","volume":"19","author":"K Banujan","year":"2023","unstructured":"Banujan, K., Kumara, S., Prasanth, S. & Ravikumar, N. Revolutionising Educational Assessment: Automated Question Classification using Bloom\u2019s Taxonomy and Deep Learning Techniques \u2013 A Case Study on Undergraduate Examination Questions. Int. J. Educ. Dev. using Inform. Communication Technol. (IJEDICT). 19 (3), 259\u2013278 (2023).","journal-title":"Int. J. Educ. Dev. using Inform. Communication Technol. (IJEDICT)"},{"key":"45486_CR4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"47","DOI":"10.1007\/978-981-99-9379-6_4","volume-title":"Machine Learning in Educational Sciences","author":"V Pallipuram","year":"2024","unstructured":"Pallipuram, V., Mammadov, G., Ho, B., Dhulipala, M. & Dziallas, S. Camelot: A Council of Machine Learning Strategies to Enhance Teaching. In Machine Learning in Educational Sciences (ed. Khine, M. S.) 47\u201384 (Springer Nature, 2024)."},{"key":"45486_CR5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chanaa, A. & El Faddouli, N. A cognitive level evaluation method based on machine learning approach and Bloom of taxonomy for online assessments. J. Educ. Learn. (EduLearn). 18 (2), 553\u2013560 (May 2024).","DOI":"10.11591\/edulearn.v18i2.20948"},{"key":"45486_CR6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Asthana, P., Mishra, S. & Hazela, B. Text Identification for Questions Generation According to Bloom\u2019s Taxonomy Using Natural Language Processing, in Machine Learning in Educational Sciences, M. S. Khine, Ed. Singapore: Springer Nature, ch. 16. (2024).","DOI":"10.1007\/978-981-99-9379-6_16"},{"issue":"3","key":"45486_CR7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"211","DOI":"10.14445\/22315381\/IJETT-V69I3P232","volume":"69","author":"MD Laddha","year":"2021","unstructured":"Laddha, M. D., Lokare, V. T., Kiwelekar, A. W. & Netak, L. D. Classifications of the Summative Assessment for Revised Bloom\u2019s Taxonomy by using Deep Learning. Int. J. Eng. Trends Technol. 69 (3), 211\u2013218 (2021).","journal-title":"Int. J. Eng. Trends Technol."},{"key":"45486_CR8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mudkanna, A. K., Gavhane, S. & Pagare, R. A Novel Approach using RGB Architecture for Bloom\u2019s Taxonomy Classification, in AI and IoT for Sustainable Development in the 4th Industrial Revolution, (eds Shandilya, S. K., Nayak, S. K., Tripathy, S. K. & Shaw, A. K.) CRC, 461\u2013471 (2024).","DOI":"10.1201\/9781003587392-68"},{"key":"45486_CR9","unstructured":"Singh, S., Bhatt, M. & Kumar, B. A GNN-Based Approach for Automatic Classification of Exam Questions Using Revised Bloom\u2019s Taxonomy, in International Conference on Intelligent Systems for Communication, IoT and Security (ICISCoIS), 2025., (2025)."},{"key":"45486_CR10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/02734753241305980","author":"C Gonsalves","year":"2024","unstructured":"Gonsalves, C. Generative AI\u2019s Impact on Critical Thinking: Revisiting Bloom\u2019s Taxonomy. J. Mark. Educ. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/02734753241305980 (2024).","journal-title":"J. Mark. Educ."},{"key":"45486_CR11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"107567","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2023.3320641","volume":"11","author":"M Al-Kasasbeh","year":"2023","unstructured":"Al-Kasasbeh, M., Khair, M., Al-Dari, A. & Al-Zyoud, A. Enhancing Intrusion Detection Systems Using a Hybrid Deep Learning Model with Advanced Feature Engineering. IEEE Access. 11, 107567\u2013107581. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/ACCESS.2023.3320641 (2023).","journal-title":"IEEE Access."},{"key":"45486_CR12","volume-title":"Deep learning","author":"I Goodfellow","year":"2016","unstructured":"Goodfellow, I. & Bengio, Y. Aaron Courville, and Yoshua Bengio. In Deep learning Vol. 1 (MIT Press, 2016), pp. 1-800."}],"container-title":["Scientific Reports"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41598-026-45486-1","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41598-026-45486-1.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41598-026-45486-1.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,29]],"date-time":"2026-04-29T07:29:36Z","timestamp":1777447776000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41598-026-45486-1"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,23]]},"references-count":12,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,12]]}},"alternative-id":["45486"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s41598-026-45486-1","relation":{},"ISSN":["2045-2322"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2045-2322","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,23]]},"assertion":[{"value":"19 December 2025","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"19 March 2026","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"23 March 2026","order":3,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"order":1,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"The authors declare no competing interests.","order":2,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Competing interests"}}],"article-number":"13754"}}