{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,16]],"date-time":"2026-06-16T21:56:51Z","timestamp":1781647011525,"version":"3.54.5"},"reference-count":21,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,2]],"date-time":"2026-04-02T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1775088000000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,21]],"date-time":"2026-05-21T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1779321600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":49,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100010269","name":"Wellcome Trust","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["218771\/Z\/19\/Z"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["218771\/Z\/19\/Z"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100010269","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100011858","name":"African Academy of Sciences","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["ARISE-PP-FA-143"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["ARISE-PP-FA-143"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100011858","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"WANIDA Network","award":["WAN-P02"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["WAN-P02"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sci Rep"],"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>\n                    Since the emergence of the COVID-19 pandemic, several surveillance measures have been implemented in African cities, including the continuous collection and analysis of epidemiological data to identify suspected or confirmed cases. Rural regions, where over half of Africa\u2019s population resides, often face a scarcity of quality health care infrastructure and diagnostic services, hindering effective disease surveillance and potentially accelerating disease transmission. Our study aimed to assess COVID-19 seroprevalence and spread in rural Burkina Faso using an innovative noninvasive sampling method based on naturally blood-feeding mosquitoes as a proxy for human sampling. This cross-sectional study was conducted from October to November 2021 in eleven rural localities located along the RN1 road in Burkina Faso, including six villages near Bobo-Dioulasso (Bereba, Bombi, Dimikuy, Intiedougou, Koumbia, and Nahirindon) and five villages near Ouagadougou (Ouezindougou, Saria, Sissene, Tampelga, and Tathyou). Samples consisted of 690 blood-fed mosquitoes collected by aspiration from 299 human dwellings. The predominant vector species were\n                    <jats:italic>Anopheles funestus<\/jats:italic>\n                    and\n                    <jats:italic>Anopheles gambiae<\/jats:italic>\n                    . ELISA tests were performed to detect human anti-spike protein and anti-RBD domain antibodies to SARS-CoV-2. Overall, SARS-CoV-2 seroprevalence detected in mosquitoes was 31.16% (215\/690). Seroprevalence was higher in rural areas near Bobo-Dioulasso, reaching 35.14% (130\/370), compared with 26.56% (85\/320) in areas near Ouagadougou. In addition to providing evidence of SARS-CoV-2 circulation during an active phase of the pandemic, this study evaluated the feasibility of using naturally fed mosquitoes as a complementary surveillance tool for monitoring SARS-CoV-2 seroprevalence in rural Burkina Faso. However, due to missing data on the time each mosquito took the blood meal, its source, and the proportion of mosquitoes feeding on the same individual hosts, this information serves as a crude minimum infection rate in these populations and additional sampling, and assays are needed to accurately extend these results to determine exact seroprevalence in these communities.\n                  <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-026-46133-5","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,2]],"date-time":"2026-04-02T14:29:01Z","timestamp":1775140141000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Seroprevalence of SARS-CoV-2 in rural communities of Burkina faso (West Africa) assessed through blood-fed mosquitoes"],"prefix":"10.1038","volume":"16","author":[{"given":"Ra\u00efssa Muriel","family":"de Souza","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Etienne","family":"Bilgo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Edounou Jacques","family":"Gnambani","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Djibril","family":"Samak\u00e9","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Abdoul Azize","family":"Millogo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Maurice","family":"Konkobo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Dramane","family":"Kania","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Adama","family":"Dao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Tovi","family":"Lehmann","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Abdoulaye","family":"Diabate","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,2]]},"reference":[{"key":"46133_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Markandan, K. et al. Emergence of infectious diseases and role of advanced nanomaterials in point-of-care diagnostics: a review. Biotechnology and Genetic Engineering Reviews. ;0(0):1\u201389. (2022). Available from: https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/02648725.2022.2127070","DOI":"10.1080\/02648725.2022.2127070"},{"key":"46133_CR2","unstructured":"WHO Director-General\u2019s remarks at the media briefing on 2019-nCoV on 11. February (2020). Available from: https:\/\/www.who.int\/director-general\/speeches\/detail\/who-director-general-s-remarks-at-the-media-briefing-on-2019-ncov-on-11-february-2020 (accessed on 2023 Aug 2)."},{"key":"46133_CR3","unstructured":"WHO Coronavirus (COVID-19) Dashboard. accessed on (2022). Available from: https:\/\/covid19.who.int Oct 20)."},{"key":"46133_CR4","unstructured":"Burkina Faso. WHO Coronavirus Disease (COVID-19) Dashboard With Vaccination Data. Available online: accessed on (2023). https:\/\/covid19.who.int Aug 3)."},{"key":"46133_CR5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Adebisi, Y. A., Rabe, A. & Lucero-Prisno, D. E. III COVID-19 surveillance systems in African countries. Health Promot Perspect. Dec 19 [cited 2026 Jan 23];11(4):382\u201392. (2021). Available from: https:\/\/pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/articles\/PMC8767077\/ (accessed on 2026 Jan 23).","DOI":"10.34172\/hpp.2021.49"},{"key":"46133_CR6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sawadogo, S. et al. Cumulative seroprevalence of SARS-CoV-2 antibodies among blood donors in Burkina Faso, April 2022. The Journal of Infection in Developing Countries. ;19(03):353\u201361. (2025). Available from: https:\/\/jidc.org\/index.php\/journal\/article\/view\/40168379 (accessed on 2026 Jan 23).","DOI":"10.3855\/jidc.18381"},{"key":"46133_CR7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Bwire, G. et al. The COVID-19 pandemic in the African continent. BMC Medicine. ;20(1):167. (2022). Available from: https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s12916-022-02367-4 (accessed on 2023 Aug 3).","DOI":"10.1186\/s12916-022-02367-4"},{"key":"46133_CR8","unstructured":"World Health Organization. ; 98(10):93\u20138. Strategic and Technical Advisory Group for Infectious Hazards: annual meeting on epidemic and pandemic preparedness and response, future surveillance Weekly Epidemiological Record (2023). Available from: https:\/\/apps.who.int\/iris\/handle\/10665\/366414 (accessed on 2023 Aug 3)."},{"key":"46133_CR9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lesne, J. & L\u00e9vi, Y. La surveillance des eaux us\u00e9es en aide \u00e0 la veille sanitaire sur la pand\u00e9mie de Covid-19. Environnement, Risques & Sant\u00e9; 20(3):274\u201389. Available from: https:\/\/www.cairn.info\/revue-environnement-risques-et-sante-2021-3-page-274.htm (accessed on 2023 Aug 4).","DOI":"10.1684\/ers.2021.1558"},{"key":"46133_CR10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fauver, J. R. et al. The Use of Xenosurveillance to Detect Human Bacteria, Parasites, and Viruses in Mosquito Bloodmeals. Am J Trop Med Hyg. ;97(2):324\u20139. (2017). Available from: https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC5544101\/ (accessed on 2023 Aug 4).","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.17-0063"},{"key":"46133_CR11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ilboudo, S. D. O., Sombi\u00e9, I., Soubeiga, A. K. & Dr\u00e6bel, T. Facteurs influen\u00e7ant le refus de consulter au centre de sant\u00e9 dans la r\u00e9gion rurale Ouest du Burkina Faso. Sant\u00e9 Publique [Internet]. ;28(3):391\u20137. (2016). Available from: https:\/\/www.cairn.info\/revue-sante-publique-2016-3-page-391.htm (accessed on 2023 Sept 12).","DOI":"10.3917\/spub.163.0391"},{"key":"46133_CR12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fauver, J. R. et al. Xenosurveillance reflects traditional sampling techniques for the identification of human pathogens: A comparative study in West Africa. PLoS Negl Trop Dis; ;12(3):e0006348. (2018). Available from: https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC5880402\/ (accessed on 2023 Aug 4).","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0006348"},{"key":"46133_CR13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Huang, Y. J. S. et al. SARS-CoV-2 failure to infect or replicate in mosquitoes: an extreme challenge. Sci Rep. 2020 July 17;10(1):11915. Available from: https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41598-020-68882-7 (accessed on 2023 Aug 4).","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-020-68882-7"},{"key":"46133_CR14","unstructured":"A micro-PRNT for the detection of Ross. River virus antibodies in mosquito blood meals: A useful tool for inferring transmission pathways | PLOS ONE. Available from: https:\/\/journals.plos.org\/plosone\/article?id=10.1371\/journal.pone.0229314 (accessed on 2023 Aug 7)."},{"key":"46133_CR15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Barbazan, P., Palabodeewat, S., Nitatpattana, N. & Gonzalez, J. P. accessed on. Detection of Host Virus-Reactive Antibodies in Blood Meals of Naturally Engorged Mosquitoes. Vector-Borne and Zoonotic Diseases;9(1):103\u20138. Available from: https:\/\/www.liebertpub.com\/doi\/abs\/ (2023). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1089\/vbz.2007.0242 Aug 7).","DOI":"10.1089\/vbz.2007.0242"},{"key":"46133_CR16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"\u0160tefani\u0107, S., Grimm, F., Mathis, A., Winiger, R. & Verhulst, N. O. Xenosurveillance proof-of-principle: Detection of Toxoplasma gondii and SARS-CoV-2 antibodies in mosquito blood meals by (pan)-specific ELISAs. Current Research in Parasitology & Vector-Borne Diseases;2:100076. Available from: https:\/\/linkinghub.elsevier.com\/retrieve\/pii\/S2667114X22000024 (accessed on 2023 June 29).","DOI":"10.1016\/j.crpvbd.2022.100076"},{"key":"46133_CR17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1243691","DOI":"10.3389\/fepid.2023.1243691","volume":"3","author":"BJ Krajacich","year":"2023","unstructured":"Krajacich, B. J. et al. Tracking SARS-CoV-2 seropositivity in rural communities using blood-fed mosquitoes: a proof-of-concept study. Front. Epidemiol. 3, 1243691 (2023). accessed on 2023 July 26).","journal-title":"Front. Epidemiol."},{"key":"46133_CR18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vieira, C. J. S. P. et al. Mosquito bloodmeals can be used to determine vertebrate diversity, host preference, and pathogen exposure in humans and wildlife. Sci Rep; ;14(1):23203. (2024). Available from: https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41598-024-73820-y (accessed on 2023 Jan 23).","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-024-73820-y"},{"key":"46133_CR19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Renn, J. et al. Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2Seroassay Performance and Optimization in a Population With High Background Reactivity in Mali. J. Infect. Dis.224(12), 2001\u20132009. PMID: 34612499; PMCID: PMC8522418. 2021. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/infdis\/jiab498","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/jiab498"},{"key":"46133_CR20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Struck, N. S. et al. High seroprevalence of SARS-CoV-2 in Burkina-Faso, Ghana and Madagascar in 2021: a population-based study. BMC Public Health. 2022 Sept 5;22(1):1676. Available from: https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s12889-022-13918-y (accessed on 2023 Aug 25).","DOI":"10.1186\/s12889-022-13918-y"},{"key":"46133_CR21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Janssen, N. et al. Mammalophilic feeding behaviour of Culex quinquefasciatus mosquitoes collected in the cities of Chetumal and Cancun, Yucat\u00e1n Peninsula, Mexico. Tropical Medicine & International Health. ; 20(11):1488\u201391. (2015). Available from: https:\/\/onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/doi\/abs\/10.1111\/tmi.12587 (accessed on 2023 Aug 25).","DOI":"10.1111\/tmi.12587"}],"container-title":["Scientific Reports"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41598-026-46133-5","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41598-026-46133-5.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41598-026-46133-5.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,16]],"date-time":"2026-06-16T21:25:33Z","timestamp":1781645133000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41598-026-46133-5"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,2]]},"references-count":21,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,12]]}},"alternative-id":["46133"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s41598-026-46133-5","relation":{},"ISSN":["2045-2322"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2045-2322","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,2]]},"assertion":[{"value":"12 October 2025","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"24 March 2026","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"2 April 2026","order":3,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"order":1,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"The authors declare no competing interests.","order":2,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Competing interests"}}],"article-number":"15816"}}