{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,18]],"date-time":"2026-06-18T00:54:18Z","timestamp":1781744058704,"version":"3.54.5"},"reference-count":29,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,24]],"date-time":"2026-04-24T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1776988800000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,18]],"date-time":"2026-06-18T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1781740800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":55,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"}],"funder":[{"name":"University of Nottingham internal funding scheme"},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000267","name":"Arts and Humanities Research Council","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000267","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sci Rep"],"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>The microscopic topographical scanning of bone material is a common practice for multiple fields, such as archaeology, medicine, and criminology. However, assessments of whether the tools used to perform these scans are accurate on these objects have yet to be performed. In this work, the performance of the two most common scanning techniques used on bone items, focus variation and 3D confocal scanning, are preliminarily assessed, revealing previously unknown limitations with current measurement practice and technologies. Across a range of bone specimens, the same limitation appears, which does not occur on any of a subset of engineered materials tested. The types of features that bone-focused work would commonly asses, such as cutmarks, are revealed to be the most susceptible to distortion. 3D confocal is preliminarily determined as the more accurate technique to use on bone. The discrepancies discovered in this work begin to answer some of the unsolved repeatability problems noted during previous work on bone objects, and highlight how future equipment must be redesigned to accommodate this new style of emerging, critical, applications.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-026-50016-0","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,24]],"date-time":"2026-04-24T13:28:35Z","timestamp":1777037315000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["From engineered standards to natural bone: re-constraining topographical scanning for heritage samples"],"prefix":"10.1038","volume":"16","author":[{"given":"Christopher G.","family":"Tompkins","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Holly","family":"Miller","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,24]]},"reference":[{"key":"50016_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.1186\/s40543-023-00413-1","volume":"14","author":"J de Rooij","year":"2023","unstructured":"de Rooij, J., Vintges, M. Q., Zuidwijk, T., Heerkens, C. T. H. & Schulp, A. S. Quantification of bone surface textures: exploring a new method of ontogenetic ageing. J. Anal. Sci. Technol. 14, 49\u20139 (2023).","journal-title":"J. Anal. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"50016_CR2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Martisius, N.\u00a0L. et al. Time wears on: Assessing how bone wears using 3d surface texture analysis. PloS one 13, e0206078\u2013 (2018).","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0206078"},{"key":"50016_CR3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"313","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clinbiomech.2011.10.010","volume":"27","author":"G Augustin","year":"2012","unstructured":"Augustin, G. et al. Cortical bone drilling and thermal osteonecrosis. Clin. Biomech. (Bristol) 27, 313\u2013325 (2012).","journal-title":"Clin. Biomech. (Bristol)"},{"key":"50016_CR4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.msec.2020.111142","volume":"115","author":"MC Mor\u00e1n","year":"2020","unstructured":"Mor\u00e1n, M. C., Cirisano, F. & Ferrari, M. 3d profilometry and cell viability studies for drug response screening. Mater. Sci. Eng.: C 115, 111142. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.msec.2020.111142 (2020).","journal-title":"Mater. Sci. Eng.: C"},{"key":"50016_CR5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"272","DOI":"10.1002\/sca.20251","volume":"33","author":"C Gambino","year":"2011","unstructured":"Gambino, C. et al. Forensic surface metrology: tool mark evidence. Scanning 33, 272\u2013278 (2011).","journal-title":"Scanning"},{"key":"50016_CR6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1119","DOI":"10.1111\/1556-4029.12180","volume":"58","author":"C Crowder","year":"2013","unstructured":"Crowder, C., Rainwater, C. W. & Fridie, J. S. Microscopic analysis of sharp force trauma in bone and cartilage: A validation study. J. Forensic Sci. 58, 1119\u20131126 (2013).","journal-title":"J. Forensic Sci."},{"key":"50016_CR7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"722","DOI":"10.1002\/ajpa.23079","volume":"161","author":"comparisons of bone modifications from four prehistoric sites","year":"2016","unstructured":"comparisons of bone modifications from four prehistoric sites. Cannibalism versus funerary defleshing and disarticulation after a period of decay. American journal of physical anthropology 161, 722\u2013743 (2016).","journal-title":"American journal of physical anthropology"},{"key":"50016_CR8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"56","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jas.2017.10.004","volume":"89","author":"E Ot\u00e1rola-Castillo","year":"2018","unstructured":"Ot\u00e1rola-Castillo, E. et al. Differentiating between cutting actions on bone using 3d geometric morphometrics and bayesian analyses with implications to human evolution. J. Archaeol. Sci. 89, 56\u201367 (2018).","journal-title":"J. Archaeol. Sci."},{"key":"50016_CR9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bello, S.\u00a0M., Parfitt, S.\u00a0A. & Stringer, C.\u00a0B. Earliest directly-dated human skull-cups. PloS one 6, e17026\u2013 (2011).","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0017026"},{"key":"50016_CR10","unstructured":"Geometrical Product Specifications (GPS) \u2013 Surface texture: Areal. Standard, International Organization for Standardization, Geneva, Switzerland (2012)."},{"key":"50016_CR11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Leach, R. & Leach, R. Characterisation of areal surface texture (Springer, Berlin, 2013), 2013 edn.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-642-36458-7"},{"key":"50016_CR12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Leach, R. & Leach, R. Optical Measurement of Surface Topography (Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Heidelberg, 2011), 1. aufl. edn.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-642-12012-1_1"},{"key":"50016_CR13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"274","DOI":"10.1016\/j.quaint.2013.10.022","volume":"326\u2013327","author":"G Abrams","year":"2014","unstructured":"Abrams, G., Bello, S. M., Di Modica, K., Pirson, S. & Bonjean, D. When neanderthals used cave bear (ursus spelaeus) remains: Bone retouchers from unit 5 of scladina cave (belgium). Quat. Int. 326\u2013327, 274\u2013287 (2014).","journal-title":"Quat. Int."},{"key":"50016_CR14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"147","DOI":"10.1179\/009346906791071972","volume":"31","author":"HJ Greenfield","year":"2006","unstructured":"Greenfield, H. J. Slicing cut marks on animal bones: Diagnostics for identifying stone tool type and raw material. J. Field Archaeol. 31, 147\u2013163 (2006).","journal-title":"J. Field Archaeol."},{"key":"50016_CR15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ortiz, G. & Paz, F. The use of confocal microscopy and sem for the determination of cut marks on human bones. its application to a case study, in the foothill of jujuy, argentina (2000-1500 ap). J. Archaeol. Sci. Rep. 51, 104160\u2013 (2023).","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jasrep.2023.104160"},{"key":"50016_CR16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Casanova, X., Rold\u00e1n, M. & Subir\u00e0, M. Analysis of cut marks on ancient human remains using confocal profilometer. J. Hist. Archaeol. Anthropol. Sci. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.15406\/jhaas.2020.05.00213 (2020).","DOI":"10.15406\/jhaas.2020.05.00213"},{"key":"50016_CR17","unstructured":"Metrology, S. S neox 3d optical profiler. Brochure (2015)."},{"key":"50016_CR18","unstructured":"Hooshmand, H. et al. Comparison of coherence scanning interferometry, focus variation and confocal microscopy for surface topography measurement (2023)."},{"key":"50016_CR19","unstructured":"Currey, J.\u00a0D. The structure of bone tissue. In Bones, 3\u201326 (Princeton University Press, Princeton, 2013)."},{"key":"50016_CR20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Hofreiter, M., Serre, D., Poinar, H. & et al. Ancient DNA. Nat. Rev. Genet. 2, 353\u2013359, https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/35072071 (2001).","DOI":"10.1038\/35072071"},{"key":"50016_CR21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"485","DOI":"10.1111\/1475-4754.t01-1-00080","volume":"44","author":"SJ Roberts","year":"2002","unstructured":"Roberts, S. J., Smith, C. I., Millard, A. & Collins, M. J. The taphonomy of cooked bone: characterizing boiling and its physico-chemical effects. Archaeometry 44, 485\u2013494 (2002).","journal-title":"Archaeometry"},{"key":"50016_CR22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"150","DOI":"10.1017\/S0094837300005820","volume":"4","author":"AK Behrensmeyer","year":"1978","unstructured":"Behrensmeyer, A. K. Taphonomic and ecologic information from bone weathering. Paleobiology 4, 150\u2013162. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1017\/S0094837300005820 (1978).","journal-title":"Paleobiology"},{"key":"50016_CR23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"663","DOI":"10.1210\/endo.139.2.5751","volume":"139","author":"J Aerssens","year":"1998","unstructured":"Aerssens, J., Boonen, S., Lowet, G. & Dequeker, J. Interspecies differences in bone composition, density, and quality: Potential implications for in vivo bone research. Endocrinology (Philadelphia) 139, 663\u2013670 (1998).","journal-title":"Endocrinology (Philadelphia)"},{"key":"50016_CR24","first-page":"171","volume":"12","author":"A Azzalini","year":"1985","unstructured":"Azzalini, A. A class of distributions which includes the normal ones. Scand. J. Stat. 12, 171\u2013178 (1985).","journal-title":"Scand. J. Stat."},{"key":"50016_CR25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1716","DOI":"10.3758\/s13428-016-0814-1","volume":"49","author":"MK Cain","year":"2017","unstructured":"Cain, M. K., Zhang, Z. & Yuan, K.-H. Univariate and multivariate skewness and kurtosis for measuring nonnormality: Prevalence, influence and estimation. Behav. Res. Methods 49, 1716\u20131735 (2017).","journal-title":"Behav. Res. Methods"},{"key":"50016_CR26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Joanes, D.\u00a0N. & Gill, C.\u00a0A. Comparing measures of sample skewness and kurtosis. J. R. Stat. Soc., D (The Statistician) 47, 183\u2013189 (1998).","DOI":"10.1111\/1467-9884.00122"},{"key":"50016_CR27","first-page":"19","volume":"71","author":"G Cowan","year":"2011","unstructured":"Cowan, G. Asymptotic formulae for likelihood-based tests of new physics. Eur. Phys. J. C, Particles and fields 71, 19\u201319 (2011).","journal-title":"Eur. Phys. J. C, Particles and fields"},{"key":"50016_CR28","unstructured":"Whitehouse, D.\u00a0J. Handbook of surface metrology \/ david j. whitehouse. (1994)."},{"key":"50016_CR29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"8102","DOI":"10.1039\/b912116a","volume":"19","author":"D Holzmann","year":"2009","unstructured":"Holzmann, D., Holzinger, D., Hesser, G., Schmidt, T. & Knoer, G. Hydroxyapatite nanoparticles as novel low-refractive index additives for the long-term uv-photoprotection of transparent composite materials. J. Mater. Chem. 19, 8102\u20138106 (2009).","journal-title":"J. Mater. Chem."}],"container-title":["Scientific Reports"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41598-026-50016-0","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41598-026-50016-0.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41598-026-50016-0.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,18]],"date-time":"2026-06-18T00:22:32Z","timestamp":1781742152000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41598-026-50016-0"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,24]]},"references-count":29,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,12]]}},"alternative-id":["50016"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s41598-026-50016-0","relation":{"has-preprint":[{"id-type":"doi","id":"10.21203\/rs.3.rs-8732397\/v1","asserted-by":"object"}]},"ISSN":["2045-2322"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2045-2322","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,24]]},"assertion":[{"value":"29 January 2026","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"17 April 2026","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"24 April 2026","order":3,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"order":1,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"The authors declare no competing interests.","order":2,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Competing Interests"}}],"article-number":"18999"}}