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In the first study of its kind, we analyze\n                    <jats:italic>fixation-related potentials<\/jats:italic>\n                    (FRPs) to explore the online processing of program code patterns that are confusing to programmers, but not to the computer (so-called\n                    <jats:italic>atoms of confusion<\/jats:italic>\n                    ), and their underlying neurocognitive mechanisms in an ecologically valid setting. Relative to clean counterparts in program code without an atom of confusion, confusing code elicits a late frontal positivity of about 400 to 700 ms after first looking at the atom of confusion. This frontal positivity resembles an event-related potential (ERP) component found during natural language processing that is elicited by unexpected but plausible words in sentence context. Thus, we suggest that the brain engages similar neurocognitive mechanisms in response to unexpected and informative inputs in program code and in natural language. In both domains, these inputs update a comprehender\u2019s situation model, which is essential for information extraction from a quickly unfolding input. Our results have far-reaching implications for programming and pave the way for interdisciplinary collaborations between software engineering and psycholinguistics.\n                  <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-026-50946-9","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,1]],"date-time":"2026-06-01T13:47:10Z","timestamp":1780321630000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Fixation-related potentials reveal that confusing program code elicits a late frontal positivity"],"prefix":"10.1038","volume":"16","author":[{"given":"Annabelle","family":"Bergum","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Anna-Maria","family":"Maurer","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Norman","family":"Peitek","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Regine","family":"Bader","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Axel","family":"Mecklinger","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Vera","family":"Demberg","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Janet","family":"Siegmund","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sven","family":"Apel","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,1]]},"reference":[{"key":"50946_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"LaToza, T., Venolia, G. & DeLine, R. \u201cMaintaining mental models: A study of developer work habits.\u201d In Proc. 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