{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,22]],"date-time":"2026-10-22T18:23:50Z","timestamp":1792693430469,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":65,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,14]],"date-time":"2026-05-14T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1778716800000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,14]],"date-time":"2026-05-14T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1778716800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100009367","name":"Mansoura University","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100009367","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sci Rep"],"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>This work proposes a simulation-based photonic\u2013AI sensing framework for soil nutrient and microplastic detection. This framework integrates a 2D dual-ring cavity photonic crystal (PhC) sensor with a Deep &amp; Cross Network model (DCN). The PhC sensor demonstrates strong optical confinement and spectral selectivity, achieving quality factors up to 18,244, with resonance wavelengths spanning 1528.5\u20131824.4\u00a0nm, high sensitivity as 631\u00a0nm\/RIU for nutrients and 432\u00a0nm\/RIU for Low density polyethylene (LDPE) microplastic detection. The PhC sensor further achieves figures of merit up to 3440 RIU\u207b\u00b9 and detection limits as low as 3\u2009\u00d7\u200910\u207b\u2075 RIU, and stable operation under fabrication tolerances and temperature variations. The proposed DCN architecture effectively analyzes the resultant spectral responses of the different soil elements and contaminants. It precisely captures nonlinear spectral patterns without relying on refractive index as an explicit feature, avoiding classification ambiguity at similar concentration levels of soil elements. The introduced DCN model achieves high classification\/identification performance of 99.87% accuracy and near-perfect precision, recall, and F1-score. For explainability, SHAP and LIME are employed to quantify spectral feature contributions and explain individual predictions. This explainable AI (XAI) analysis confirms the physical relevance of dominant spectral features used for decision-making. The performed Fabrication tolerance and temperature analyses confirm stable operation within practical limits. Although experimental validation is beyond the scope of this study, the compact sensor design and lightweight inference model support future hardware integration. These results demonstrate the potential of physics-based photonic sensing combined with explainable AI for intelligent soil monitoring.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-026-51368-3","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,14]],"date-time":"2026-05-14T12:06:53Z","timestamp":1778760413000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Integrating nano crystal sensor with explainable deep learning for nutrients and microplastic-toxicity detection"],"prefix":"10.1038","volume":"16","author":[{"given":"Aya","family":"Magdy","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Seham","family":"Abd-Elsamee","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Doaa A.","family":"Altantawy","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,14]]},"reference":[{"key":"51368_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/computers12030061","author":"MK Senapaty","year":"2023","unstructured":"Senapaty, M. K., Ray, A. & Padhy, N. IoT-enabled soil nutrient analysis and crop recommendation model for precision agriculture. Computers https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/computers12030061 (2023).","journal-title":"Computers"},{"key":"51368_CR2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/SU12124859","author":"MM Tahat","year":"2020","unstructured":"Tahat, M. M., Alananbeh, K. M., Othman, Y. A. & Leskovar, D. I. Soil health and sustainable agriculture. Sustainability https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/SU12124859 (2020).","journal-title":"Sustainability"},{"issue":"1","key":"51368_CR3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compag.2009.09.017","volume":"70","author":"JV Sinfield","year":"2010","unstructured":"Sinfield, J. V., Fagerman, D. & Colic, O. Evaluation of sensing technologies for on-the-go detection of macro-nutrients in cultivated soils. Comput. Electron. Agric. 70(1), 1\u201318. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.compag.2009.09.017 (2010).","journal-title":"Comput. Electron. Agric."},{"issue":"3","key":"51368_CR4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"507","DOI":"10.1007\/s13538-021-00876-w","volume":"51","author":"EC Britto","year":"2021","unstructured":"Britto, E. C., Danasegaran, S. K., Xavier, S. C. & Jeyaseelan, J. Soil nutrient detection based on photonic crystal hexagonal resonator for smart farming. Braz. J. Phys. 51(3), 507\u2013514. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s13538-021-00876-w (2021).","journal-title":"Braz. J. Phys."},{"key":"51368_CR5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.seh.2025.100157","author":"H Chen","year":"2025","unstructured":"Chen, H. et al. Accurate detection of low concentrations of microplastics in soils via short-wave infrared hyperspectral imaging. Soil. Environ. Health. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.seh.2025.100157 (2025).","journal-title":"Soil. Environ. Health."},{"key":"51368_CR6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/adpr.202400038","author":"Y Zhu","year":"2024","unstructured":"Zhu, Y. et al. Advanced optical imaging technologies for microplastics identification: Progress and challenges. Adv. Photonics Res. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/adpr.202400038 (2024).","journal-title":"Adv. Photonics Res."},{"issue":"9","key":"51368_CR7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1384","DOI":"10.1039\/c6ay02558g","volume":"9","author":"WJ Shim","year":"2017","unstructured":"Shim, W. J., Hong, S. H. & Eo, S. E. Identification methods in microplastic analysis: A review. Anal. Methods 9(9), 1384\u20131391. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1039\/c6ay02558g (2017).","journal-title":"Anal. Methods"},{"issue":"17","key":"51368_CR8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"9656","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.est.8b02212","volume":"52","author":"AA De Souza MacHado","year":"2018","unstructured":"De Souza MacHado, A. A. et al. Impacts of microplastics on the soil biophysical environment. Environ. Sci. Technol. 52(17), 9656\u20139665. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1021\/acs.est.8b02212 (2018).","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"51368_CR9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/s25113306","author":"B Maryam","year":"2025","unstructured":"Maryam, B. et al. Luminous upconverted nanoparticles as high-sensitivity optical probes for visualizing nano- and microplastics in Caenorhabditis elegans. Sensors https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s25113306 (2025).","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"51368_CR10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fpls.2017.01805","author":"MC Rillig","year":"2017","unstructured":"Rillig, M. C., Ingraffia, R. & De Souza Machado, A. A. Microplastic incorporation into soil in agroecosystems. Front. Plant Sci. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fpls.2017.01805 (2017).","journal-title":"Front. Plant Sci."},{"key":"51368_CR11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.heliyon.2024.e38326","author":"M Meenaakumari","year":"2024","unstructured":"Meenaakumari, M. et al. Optical parameters extraction of soil and its microplastics contamination using terahertz spectroscopy. Heliyon https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.heliyon.2024.e38326 (2024).","journal-title":"Heliyon"},{"key":"51368_CR12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biosx.2022.100175","author":"J Divya","year":"2022","unstructured":"Divya, J., Selvendran, S., Raja, A. S. & Sivasubramanian, A. Surface plasmon based plasmonic sensors: A review on their past, present and future. Biosens. Bioelectron. X. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.biosx.2022.100175 (2022).","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron. X."},{"issue":"1","key":"51368_CR13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.1016\/0250-6874(86)80033-6","volume":"10","author":"J Fluitman","year":"1986","unstructured":"Fluitman, J. & Popma, T. Optical waveguide sensors. Sens. Actuators 10(1), 25\u201346. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/0250-6874(86)80033-6 (1986).","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators"},{"key":"51368_CR14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules24102025","author":"TJ Yeong","year":"2019","unstructured":"Yeong, T. J., Jern, K. P., Yao, L. K., Hannan, M. A. & Hoon, S. T. G. Applications of photonics in agriculture sector: A review. Molecules https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/molecules24102025 (2019).","journal-title":"Molecules"},{"key":"51368_CR15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"374","DOI":"10.1016\/J.SNA.2015.07.025","volume":"233","author":"YN Zhang","year":"2015","unstructured":"Zhang, Y. N., Zhao, Y. & Lv, R. Q. A review for optical sensors based on photonic crystal cavities. Sens. Actuators A Phys. 233, 374\u2013389. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/J.SNA.2015.07.025 (2015).","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators A Phys."},{"issue":"3","key":"51368_CR16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"469","DOI":"10.1364\/JOSAB.20.000469","volume":"20","author":"R Ferrini","year":"2003","unstructured":"Ferrini, R., Houdr\u00e9, R., Benisty, H., Qiu, M. & Moosburger, J. Radiation losses in planar photonic crystals: Two-dimensional representation of hole depth and shape by an imaginary dielectric constant. J. Opt. Soc. Am. B Opt. Phys. 20(3), 469\u2013478. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1364\/JOSAB.20.000469 (2003).","journal-title":"J. Opt. Soc. Am. B Opt. Phys."},{"key":"51368_CR17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dinodiya, S., Suthar, B. & Bhargava, A. Photonic crystal sensors: Physics and applications. In: (2018). https:\/\/api.semanticscholar.org\/CorpusID:125645746","DOI":"10.1063\/1.5032747"},{"key":"51368_CR18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1088\/2040-8986\/aac75b","author":"G Pitruzzello","year":"2018","unstructured":"Pitruzzello, G. & Krauss, T. F. Photonic crystal resonances for sensing and imaging. J. Opt. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1088\/2040-8986\/aac75b (2018).","journal-title":"J. Opt."},{"key":"51368_CR19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/adom.201800730","author":"P Lova","year":"2018","unstructured":"Lova, P., Manfredi, G. & Comoretto, D. Advances in functional solution processed planar 1D photonic crystals. Adv. Opt. Mater. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/adom.201800730 (2018).","journal-title":"Adv. Opt. Mater."},{"issue":"10","key":"51368_CR20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"5013","DOI":"10.1021\/ac504679n","volume":"87","author":"Z Cai","year":"2015","unstructured":"Cai, Z., Smith, N. L., Zhang, J. T. & Asher, S. A. Two-dimensional photonic crystal chemical and biomolecular sensors. Anal. Chem. 87(10), 5013\u20135025. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1021\/ac504679n (2015).","journal-title":"Anal. Chem."},{"issue":"1","key":"51368_CR21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"547","DOI":"10.1021\/cr900080v","volume":"110","author":"JH Moon","year":"2010","unstructured":"Moon, J. H. & Yang, S. Chemical Aspects of Three-Dimensional Photonic Crystals. Chem. Rev. 110 (1), 547\u2013574. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1021\/cr900080v (2010).","journal-title":"Chem. Rev."},{"issue":"6","key":"51368_CR22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4505","DOI":"10.1039\/c5ra21373h","volume":"6","author":"H Shen","year":"2016","unstructured":"Shen, H., Wang, Z., Wu, Y. & Yang, B. One-dimensional photonic crystals: Fabrication, responsiveness and emerging applications in 3D construction. RSC Adv Royal Soc. Chemistry. 6 (6), 4505\u20134520. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1039\/c5ra21373h (2016).","journal-title":"RSC Adv Royal Soc. Chemistry"},{"issue":"8","key":"51368_CR23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1101","DOI":"10.1002\/adma.201104778","volume":"24","author":"N Vasilantonakis","year":"2012","unstructured":"Vasilantonakis, N. et al. Three-dimensional metallic photonic crystals with optical bandgaps. Adv. Mater. 24 (8), 1101\u20131105. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/adma.201104778 (2012).","journal-title":"Adv. Mater."},{"issue":"2","key":"51368_CR24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"283","DOI":"10.1364\/JOSAB.10.000283","volume":"10","author":"E Yablonovitch","year":"1993","unstructured":"Yablonovitch, E. Photonic band-gap structures. J. Opt. Soc. Am. B. 10 (2), 283\u2013295. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1364\/JOSAB.10.000283 (1993).","journal-title":"J. Opt. Soc. Am. B"},{"issue":"94","key":"51368_CR25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"18464","DOI":"10.1039\/D5CC04899K","volume":"61","author":"S Subburaj","year":"2025","unstructured":"Subburaj, S., Liu, C. & Xu, T. Emerging trends in AI-integrated optical biosensors for point-of-care diagnostics: current status and future prospects. Chem. Commun. 61 (94), 18464\u201318489. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1039\/D5CC04899K (2025).","journal-title":"Chem. Commun."},{"issue":"2","key":"51368_CR26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"62","DOI":"10.35882\/jeeemi.v4i2.2","volume":"4","author":"S Sharma","year":"2022","unstructured":"Sharma, S. & Tharani, L. Use of AI Techniques on Photonic Crystal Sensing for the Detection of Tumor. J. Electron. Electromedical Eng. Med. Inf. 4 (2), 62\u201369. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.35882\/jeeemi.v4i2.2 (2022).","journal-title":"J. Electron. Electromedical Eng. Med. Inf."},{"key":"51368_CR27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1950","DOI":"10.1364\/AO.57.001950","volume":"57 8","author":"MJ Safdari","year":"2018","unstructured":"Safdari, M. J., Mirjalili, S. M., Bianucci, P. & Zhang, X. Multi-objective optimization framework for designing photonic crystal sensors. Appl. Opt. 57 8, 1950\u20131957 (2018). https:\/\/api.semanticscholar.org\/CorpusID:3798932","journal-title":"Appl. Opt."},{"issue":"1","key":"51368_CR28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1071\/SR18299","volume":"57","author":"T Rennert","year":"2019","unstructured":"Rennert, T. Wet-chemical extractions to characterise pedogenic Al and Fe species-a critical review. Soil Research CSIRO. 57 (1), 1\u201316. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1071\/SR18299 (2019).","journal-title":"Soil Research CSIRO"},{"issue":"3","key":"51368_CR29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"180","DOI":"10.1080\/05704928.2011.637186","volume":"47","author":"S Bandyopadhyay","year":"2012","unstructured":"Bandyopadhyay, S. et al. Microscopic and spectroscopic methods applied to the measurements of nanoparticles in the environment. Appl. Spectrosc. Rev. 47(3), 180\u2013206. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/05704928.2011.637186 (2012).","journal-title":"Appl. Spectrosc. Rev."},{"issue":"S1","key":"51368_CR30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"680","DOI":"10.1017\/s1431927618003896","volume":"24","author":"D Tripathi","year":"2018","unstructured":"Tripathi, D., Alonso-Perez, M. O. & Tiwari, D. K. Rapid diagnosis of soil nutrients using microscopic techniques. Microsc. Microanal. 24(S1), 680\u2013681. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1017\/s1431927618003896 (2018).","journal-title":"Microsc. Microanal."},{"key":"51368_CR31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"111","DOI":"10.1016\/j.geoderma.2018.09.010","volume":"337","author":"JAM Dematt\u00ea","year":"2019","unstructured":"Dematt\u00ea, J. A. M., Dotto, A. C., Bedin, L. G., Say\u00e3o, V. M. & e Souza, A. B. Soil analytical quality control by traditional and spectroscopy techniques: Constructing the future of a hybrid laboratory for low environmental impact. Geoderma 337, 111\u2013121. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.geoderma.2018.09.010 (2019).","journal-title":"Geoderma"},{"key":"51368_CR32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.icheatmasstransfer.2025.108631","volume":"162","author":"M Hasan","year":"2025","unstructured":"Hasan, M. et al. Environmental monitoring with sensitive photonic fiber sensors for hazardous chemicals. Int. Commun. Heat Mass Transf. 162, 108631. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.icheatmasstransfer.2025.108631 (2025).","journal-title":"Int. Commun. Heat Mass Transf."},{"key":"51368_CR33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"527","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aej.2022.09.020","volume":"64","author":"NA Mohammed","year":"2023","unstructured":"Mohammed, N. A., Khedr, O. E., El-Rabaie, E. S. M. & Khalaf, A. A. M. Brain tumors biomedical sensor with high-quality factor and ultra-compact size based on nanocavity 2D photonic crystal. Alex. Eng. J. 64, 527\u2013540. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.aej.2022.09.020 (2023).","journal-title":"Alex. Eng. J."},{"issue":"1","key":"51368_CR34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"69","DOI":"10.1007\/s13320-018-0479-8","volume":"9","author":"R Arunkumar","year":"2019","unstructured":"Arunkumar, R., Suaganya, T. & Robinson, S. Design and analysis of 2D photonic crystal based biosensor to detect different blood components. Photonic Sensors 9(1), 69\u201377. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s13320-018-0479-8 (2019).","journal-title":"Photonic Sensors"},{"key":"51368_CR35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-025-07938-y","author":"S Rizk","year":"2025","unstructured":"Rizk, S., Abd-Elsamee, S., Marzouk, E. S. A. & Areed, N. F. F. Photonic crystal biosensor featuring an eye-shaped cavity for precise identification of cancerous cells. Sci. Rep. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s41598-025-07938-y (2025).","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"51368_CR36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijleo.2020.165994","volume":"226","author":"A Bijalwan","year":"2021","unstructured":"Bijalwan, A., Singh, B. K. & Rastogi, V. Analysis of one-dimensional photonic crystal based sensor for detection of blood plasma and cancer cells. Optik (Stuttg) 226, 165994. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.ijleo.2020.165994 (2021).","journal-title":"Optik (Stuttg)"},{"issue":"69","key":"51368_CR37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"9177","DOI":"10.1039\/D4CC01503G","volume":"60","author":"Y Yang","year":"2024","unstructured":"Yang, Y. et al. Recent advances in photonic crystal-based chemical sensors. Chem. Commun. 60(69), 9177\u20139193. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1039\/D4CC01503G (2024).","journal-title":"Chem. Commun."},{"issue":"3","key":"51368_CR38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"248","DOI":"10.1007\/s13320-014-0198-8","volume":"4","author":"K Vijaya Shanthi","year":"2014","unstructured":"Vijaya Shanthi, K. & Robinson, S. Two-dimensional photonic crystal based sensor for pressure sensing. Photonic Sensors 4(3), 248\u2013253. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s13320-014-0198-8 (2014).","journal-title":"Photonic Sensors"},{"key":"51368_CR39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.matchemphys.2022.125772","volume":"279","author":"SA Taya","year":"2022","unstructured":"Taya, S. A., Sharma, A., Doghmosh, N. & Colak, I. Detection of water concentration in ethanol solution using a ternary photonic crystal-based sensor. Mater. Chem. Phys. 279, 125772. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.matchemphys.2022.125772 (2022).","journal-title":"Mater. Chem. Phys."},{"issue":"49","key":"51368_CR40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1088\/0022-3727\/48\/49\/495102","volume":"48","author":"A Bouzidi","year":"2015","unstructured":"Bouzidi, A., Bria, D., Akjouj, A., Pennec, Y. & Djafari-Rouhani, B. A tiny gas-sensor system based on 1D photonic crystal. J. Phys. D Appl. Phys. 48(49), 495102. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1088\/0022-3727\/48\/49\/495102 (2015).","journal-title":"J. Phys. D Appl. Phys."},{"issue":"January","key":"51368_CR41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"85","DOI":"10.2528\/PIERC23120502","volume":"140","author":"F Kebaili","year":"2024","unstructured":"Kebaili, F., Harhouz, A. & Hocini, A. Modeling and simulation of photonic crystal sensor for drinking water quality monitoring. Prog. Electromagn. Res. C 140(January), 85\u201391. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2528\/PIERC23120502 (2024).","journal-title":"Prog. Electromagn. Res. C"},{"key":"51368_CR42","unstructured":"Bouzidi, A. et al. A tiny gas-sensor system based on one-dimensional photonic crystal To cite this version: A tiny gas-sensor system based on 1D photonic crystal. Published online 2022 :0\u20137 ."},{"issue":"9","key":"51368_CR43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1364\/josaa.21.001769","volume":"21","author":"S Shi","year":"2004","unstructured":"Shi, S., Chen, C. & Prather, D. W. Plane-wave expansion method for calculating band structure of photonic crystal slabs with perfectly matched layers. J. Opt. Soc. Am. A 21(9), 1769. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1364\/josaa.21.001769 (2004).","journal-title":"J. Opt. Soc. Am. A"},{"issue":"8","key":"51368_CR44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2869","DOI":"10.1364\/OPEX.13.002869","volume":"13","author":"M Yokoyama","year":"2005","unstructured":"Yokoyama, M. & Noda, S. Finite-difference time-domain simulation of two-dimensional photonic crystal surface-emitting laser. Opt. Express 13(8), 2869\u20132880. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1364\/OPEX.13.002869 (2005).","journal-title":"Opt. Express"},{"issue":"4","key":"51368_CR45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4072","DOI":"10.1364\/OE.21.004072","volume":"21","author":"I Andonegui","year":"2013","unstructured":"Andonegui, I. & Garcia-Adeva, A. J. The finite element method applied to the study of two-dimensional photonic crystals and resonant cavities. Opt. Express 21(4), 4072\u20134092. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1364\/OE.21.004072 (2013).","journal-title":"Opt. Express"},{"key":"51368_CR46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.measurement.2023.113858","author":"VR Balaji","year":"2024","unstructured":"Balaji, V. R. et al. Machine learning enabled 2D photonic crystal biosensor for early cancer detection. Measurement https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.measurement.2023.113858 (2024).","journal-title":"Measurement"},{"issue":"8","key":"51368_CR47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1364\/oe.521152","volume":"32","author":"A Ehyaee","year":"2024","unstructured":"Ehyaee, A., Rahmati, A., Bosaghzadeh, A. & Olyaee, S. Machine learning-enhanced surface plasmon resonance based photonic crystal fiber sensor. Opt. Express 32(8), 13369. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1364\/oe.521152 (2024).","journal-title":"Opt. Express"},{"key":"51368_CR48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Islam, N., Shibly, H. & Hasan, M. N. A Deep Learning Approach for Predicting Analyte Refractive Index of Open-Channel Plasmonic Sensor. Vol 187. (2025).","DOI":"10.5120\/ijca2025925567"},{"key":"51368_CR49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/s24072200","author":"E Reyes-Vera","year":"2024","unstructured":"Reyes-Vera, E. et al. Machine learning applications in optical fiber sensing: A research agenda. Sensors https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s24072200 (2024).","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"51368_CR50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Panigrahy, S. K., Das, P. & Tripathy, S. K. Agricultural soil health monitoring using photonic crystal fiber based on combined principles of surface plasmon resonance and interferometry for lead ion detection. J. Nanophotonics. 17 (03). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1117\/1.JNP.17.036013 (2023).","DOI":"10.1117\/1.JNP.17.036013"},{"issue":"18","key":"51368_CR51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"899","DOI":"10.17485\/IJST\/v15i18.186","volume":"15","author":"BMHVASPC Kumar","year":"2022","unstructured":"Kumar, B. M. H. V. A. S. P. C. Si\/SiO2 based nano-cavity biosensor for detection of anemia, HIV and cholesterol using refractive index of blood sample. Indian J. Sci. Technol. 15(18), 899\u2013907 (2022).","journal-title":"Indian J. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"51368_CR52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Wang, R., Fu, G., Fu, B. & Wang, M. Deep & cross network for ad click predictions. In: 2017 AdKDD and TargetAd - In Conjunction with the 23rd ACM SIGKDD Conference on Knowledge Discovery and Data Mining, KDD 2017. Association for Computing Machinery, Inc; (2017). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/3124749.3124754","DOI":"10.1145\/3124749.3124754"},{"key":"51368_CR53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Wang, R. et al. DCN V2: Improved Deep & Cross Network and Practical Lessons for Web-scale Learning to Rank Systems. In: Proceedings of the Web Conference. WWW \u201921. Association for Computing Machinery; 2021:1785\u20131797. WWW \u201921. Association for Computing Machinery; 2021:1785\u20131797. (2021). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/3442381.3450078","DOI":"10.1145\/3442381.3450078"},{"issue":"12","key":"51368_CR54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1826","DOI":"10.1080\/01904167.2021.1884702","volume":"44","author":"RP Potdar","year":"2021","unstructured":"Potdar, R. P., Shirolkar, M. M., Verma, A. J., More, P. S. & Kulkarni, A. Determination of soil nutrients (NPK) using optical methods: A mini review. J. Plant Nutr. 44(12), 1826\u20131839. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/01904167.2021.1884702 (2021).","journal-title":"J. Plant Nutr."},{"key":"51368_CR55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s11220-024-00535-9","author":"S Kaur","year":"2025","unstructured":"Kaur, S., Singh, S. & Sinha, M. M. Investigating the effect of soil texture on dielectric properties of soil by using square patch sensor. Sens. Imaging. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s11220-024-00535-9 (2025).","journal-title":"Sens. Imaging."},{"issue":"3","key":"51368_CR56","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1007","DOI":"10.1007\/s00542-020-05019-w","volume":"27","author":"MMA Eid","year":"2021","unstructured":"Eid, M. M. A., Habib, M. A., Anower, M. S. & Rashed, A. N. Z. Highly sensitive nonlinear photonic crystal fiber based sensor for chemical sensing applications. Microsyst. Technol. 27(3), 1007\u20131014. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s00542-020-05019-w (2021).","journal-title":"Microsyst. Technol."},{"key":"51368_CR57","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"442","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mee.2004.12.056","volume":"78\u201379","author":"J Stodolka","year":"2005","unstructured":"Stodolka, J. et al. Fabrication of two-dimensional hybrid photonic crystals utilizing electron beam lithography. Microelectron. Eng. 78\u201379, 442\u2013447. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.mee.2004.12.056 (2005).","journal-title":"Microelectron. Eng."},{"issue":"10","key":"51368_CR58","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2898","DOI":"10.1364\/JOSAB.430455","volume":"38","author":"THC Hoang","year":"2021","unstructured":"Hoang, T. H. C. et al. Silicon slotted photonic crystal cavities fabricated by deep-ultraviolet lithography. J. Opt. Soc. Am. B 38(10), 2898\u20132901. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1364\/JOSAB.430455 (2021).","journal-title":"J. Opt. Soc. Am. B"},{"issue":"4","key":"51368_CR59","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"730","DOI":"10.1016\/j.solener.2010.01.031","volume":"84","author":"J Yoo","year":"2010","unstructured":"Yoo, J. Reactive ion etching (RIE) technique for application in crystalline silicon solar cells. Sol. Energy. 84 (4), 730\u2013734. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.solener.2010.01.031 (2010).","journal-title":"Sol. Energy"},{"issue":"1","key":"51368_CR60","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.1063\/1.1588375","volume":"83","author":"N Jukam","year":"2003","unstructured":"Jukam, N. & Sherwin, M. S. Two-dimensional terahertz photonic crystals fabricated by deep reactive ion etching in Si. Appl. Phys. Lett. 83 (1), 21\u201323. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1063\/1.1588375 (2003).","journal-title":"Appl. Phys. Lett."},{"key":"51368_CR61","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1116\/1.3557027","author":"G Si","year":"2011","unstructured":"Si, G. et al. Photonic crystal structures with ultrahigh aspect ratio in lithium niobate fabricated by focused ion beam milling. Journal of Vacuum Science & Technology B, Nanotechnology and Microelectronics: Materials, Processing, Measurement, and Phenomena https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1116\/1.3557027 (2011).","journal-title":"Journal of Vacuum Science & Technology B, Nanotechnology and Microelectronics: Materials, Processing, Measurement, and Phenomena"},{"issue":"17","key":"51368_CR62","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1364\/oe.23.022250","volume":"23","author":"C Zeng","year":"2015","unstructured":"Zeng, C. et al. Single germanium quantum dot embedded in photonic crystal nanocavity for light emitter on silicon chip. Opt. Express 23(17), 22250. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1364\/oe.23.022250 (2015).","journal-title":"Opt. Express"},{"issue":"4","key":"51368_CR63","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1117\/1.1883239","volume":"44","author":"R Wu\u00a8est","year":"2005","unstructured":"Wu\u00a8est, R. Limitations of proximity-effect corrections for electron-beam patterning of planar photonic crystals. Opt. Eng. 44(4), 043401. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1117\/1.1883239 (2005).","journal-title":"Opt. Eng."},{"issue":"23","key":"51368_CR64","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1088\/0022-3727\/47\/23\/233501","volume":"47","author":"F Karouta","year":"2014","unstructured":"Karouta, F. A practical approach to reactive ion etching. J. Phys. D Appl. Phys. 47(23), 233501. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1088\/0022-3727\/47\/23\/233501 (2014).","journal-title":"J. Phys. D Appl. Phys."},{"issue":"1","key":"51368_CR65","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1116\/1.3520638","volume":"29","author":"TM Babinec","year":"2011","unstructured":"Babinec, T. M., Choy, J. T., Smith, K. J. M., Khan, M. & Lon\u010dar, M. Design and focused ion beam fabrication of single crystal diamond nanobeam cavities. J. Vac. Sci. Technol. B Nanotechnol. Microelectron. Mater. Process. Meas. Phenom. 29(1), 010601. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1116\/1.3520638 (2011).","journal-title":"J. Vac. Sci. Technol. B Nanotechnol. Microelectron. Mater. Process. Meas. Phenom."}],"container-title":["Scientific Reports"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41598-026-51368-3","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41598-026-51368-3.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41598-026-51368-3.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,14]],"date-time":"2026-05-14T12:31:00Z","timestamp":1778761860000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41598-026-51368-3"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,14]]},"references-count":65,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,12]]}},"alternative-id":["51368"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s41598-026-51368-3","relation":{},"ISSN":["2045-2322"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2045-2322","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,14]]},"assertion":[{"value":"28 January 2026","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"27 April 2026","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"14 May 2026","order":3,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"order":1,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"The authors declare no competing interests.","order":2,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Competing interests"}}],"article-number":"15179"}}