{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,30]],"date-time":"2026-09-30T03:07:56Z","timestamp":1790737676270,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":83,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,21]],"date-time":"2026-05-21T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1779321600000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-nd\/4.0"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,7]],"date-time":"2026-08-07T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1786060800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":78,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-nd\/4.0"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sci Rep"],"DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-026-53403-9","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,21]],"date-time":"2026-05-21T07:16:54Z","timestamp":1779347814000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["Stochastic human exposure-risk modelling and environmental health implications of potentially toxic elements in the Mubuku irrigation scheme, Uganda"],"prefix":"10.1038","volume":"16","author":[{"given":"Godswill J.","family":"Udom","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Brian","family":"Turyahabwe","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Daniel N.","family":"Obot","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Omoirri M.","family":"Aziakpono","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Joseph G.","family":"Omole","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"F. Faez","family":"Saad","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Alisher","family":"Abduvokhidov","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Uchkun","family":"Kutliev","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Khursheed","family":"Muzammil","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Nita-wills G.","family":"Udom","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Hope","family":"Onohuean","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Orish E.","family":"Orisakwe","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,21]]},"reference":[{"key":"53403_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/11786302231201259","volume":"17","author":"S Das","year":"2023","unstructured":"Das, S., Sultana, K. W., Ndhlala, A. R., Mondal, M. & Chandra, I. Heavy metal pollution in the environment and its impact on health: Exploring green technology for remediation. Environ. Health Insights 17, 11786302231201259. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/11786302231201259 (2023).","journal-title":"Environ. Health Insights"},{"issue":"2","key":"53403_CR2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"102114","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eti.2021.102114","volume":"25","author":"SF Ahmed","year":"2022","unstructured":"Ahmed, S. F. et al. Heavy metal toxicity, sources, and remediation techniques for contaminated water and soil. Environ. Technol. Inn. 25 (2), 102114. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.eti.2021.102114 (2022).","journal-title":"Environ. Technol. Inn"},{"issue":"10","key":"53403_CR3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"451","DOI":"10.5897\/AJEST2021.3041","volume":"15","author":"M Godfrey","year":"2021","unstructured":"Godfrey, M., Johnson, T. & Juliet, K. Assessment of heavy metal concentrations in mango fruits grown in Kasese district, Uganda. Afr. J. Environ. Sci. Technol. 15 (10), 451\u2013456. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.5897\/AJEST2021.3041 (2021).","journal-title":"Afr. J. Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"issue":"3","key":"53403_CR4","first-page":"78","volume":"8","author":"W Mukisa","year":"2020","unstructured":"Mukisa, W., Yatuha, J., Andama, M. & Kasangaki, A. Heavy metal pollution in the main rivers of Rwenzori region, Kasese District, South-western Uganda. Octa J. Environ. Res. 8 (3), 78\u201390 (2020).","journal-title":"Octa J. Environ. Res."},{"issue":"4","key":"53403_CR5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"544","DOI":"10.3390\/pollutants3040037","volume":"3","author":"G Baguma","year":"2023","unstructured":"Baguma, G., Bamanya, G., Gonzaga, A., Ampaire, W. & Onen, P. A systematic review of contaminants of concern in Uganda: Occurrence, sources, potential risks, and removal strategies. Pollutants 3(4), 544\u2013586. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/pollutants3040037 (2023).","journal-title":"Pollutants"},{"issue":"1","key":"53403_CR6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"131575","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhazmat.2023.131575","volume":"455","author":"LP Padhye","year":"2023","unstructured":"Padhye, L. P. et al. Contaminant containment for sustainable remediation of persistent contaminants in soil and groundwater. J. Hazard. Mat. 455 (1), 131575. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.jhazmat.2023.131575 (2023).","journal-title":"J. Hazard. Mat."},{"issue":"1","key":"53403_CR7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"219","DOI":"10.37284\/eajab.6.1.1262","volume":"6","author":"I Mohammed","year":"2023","unstructured":"Mohammed, I., Ipulet, P. & Kangire, A. Effect of purple blotch farm management practices on onion production in Uganda. East Afr. J. Agric. Biotechnol. 6(1), 219\u2013232. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.37284\/eajab.6.1.1262 (2023).","journal-title":"East Afr. J. Agric. Biotechnol."},{"key":"53403_CR8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s44274-025-00446-w","volume":"3","author":"G Birungi","year":"2025","unstructured":"Birungi, G. et al. Occurrence of toxic metals in river Rwizi surface water and efficacy of wastewater stabilization ponds (WSPs) in Mbarara City, Uganda. Discov. Environ. 3, 235. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s44274-025-00446-w (2025).","journal-title":"Discov. Environ."},{"issue":"1","key":"53403_CR9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-023-48489-4","volume":"13","author":"MM Orosun","year":"2023","unstructured":"Orosun, M. M. et al. Potentially toxic metals in irrigation water, soil, and vegetables and their health risks using Monte Carlo models. Sci. Rep. 13(1), 21220. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s41598-023-48489-4 (2023).","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"53403_CR10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.anifeedsci.2023.115733","volume":"304","author":"M Heuel","year":"2023","unstructured":"Heuel, M. et al. Low transfer of cadmium, lead and aflatoxin B1 to eggs and meat of laying hens receiving diets with black soldier fly larvae reared on contaminated substrates. Anim. Feed Sci. Technol. 304, 115733. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.anifeedsci.2023.115733 (2023).","journal-title":"Anim. Feed Sci. Technol."},{"key":"53403_CR11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.marpolbul.2024.116139","volume":"200","author":"K Santhosh","year":"2024","unstructured":"Santhosh, K. et al. Unveiling the silent threat: Heavy metal toxicity devastating impact on aquatic organisms and DNA damage. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 200, 116139. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.marpolbul.2024.116139 (2024).","journal-title":"Mar. Pollut. Bull."},{"key":"53403_CR12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fvets.2023.1149720","volume":"10","author":"I Tahir","year":"2023","unstructured":"Tahir, I. & Alkheraije, K. A. A review of important heavy metals toxicity with special emphasis on nephrotoxicity and its management in cattle. Front. Vet. Sci. 10, 1149720. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fvets.2023.1149720 (2023).","journal-title":"Front. Vet. Sci."},{"key":"53403_CR13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodcont.2023.110040","volume":"155","author":"H Onyeaka","year":"2024","unstructured":"Onyeaka, H. et al. Preventing chemical contaminants in food: Challenges and prospects for safe and sustainable food production. Food Control 155, 110040. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.foodcont.2023.110040 (2024).","journal-title":"Food Control"},{"key":"53403_CR14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gsd.2023.101047","volume":"23","author":"I Arshad","year":"2023","unstructured":"Arshad, I. & Umar, R. Status of heavy metals and metalloid concentrations in water resources and associated health risks in parts of the Indo-Gangetic plain, India. Groundwater Sustain. Dev. 23, 101047. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.gsd.2023.101047 (2023).","journal-title":"Groundwater Sustain. Dev."},{"key":"53403_CR15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhazmat.2021.125262","volume":"412","author":"MM Orosun","year":"2021","unstructured":"Orosun, M. M. Assessment of arsenic and its associated health risks due to mining activities in parts of North-Central Nigeria: Probabilistic approach using Monte Carlo. J. Hazard. Mater. 412, 125262 (2021).","journal-title":"J. Hazard. Mater."},{"issue":"1","key":"53403_CR16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1061\/(ASCE)HZ.2153-5515.0000732","volume":"27","author":"MR Usikalu","year":"2023","unstructured":"Usikalu, M. R., Morakinyo, R. O., Orosun, M. M. & Achuka, J. A. Assessment of background radiation in Ojota Chemical Market, Lagos, Nigeria. J. Hazard. Toxic Radioact. Waste 27(1), 04022041. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1061\/(ASCE)HZ.2153-5515.0000732 (2023).","journal-title":"J. Hazard. Toxic Radioact. Waste"},{"key":"53403_CR17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Omeje, M. et al. Radiotoxicity risk assessments of ceramic tiles used in Nigeria: The Monte Carlo approach. Environ. Nanotechnol. Monit. Manag. 100618. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.enmm.2021.100618 (2022).","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enmm.2021.100618"},{"key":"53403_CR18","unstructured":"Uganda Bureau of Statistics. The National Population and Housing Census 2024 \u2013 Final Report - Volume 1 (Main), Kampala, Uganda. (2024). https:\/\/www.ubos.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/12\/National-Population-and-Housing-Census-2024-Final-Report-Volume-1-Main.pdf"},{"issue":"1","key":"53403_CR19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-024-60044-3","volume":"14","author":"SC Duru","year":"2024","unstructured":"Duru, S. C., Echiegu, E. A., Anyadike, C. C., Alaneme, G. U. & Okechukwu, M. E. Spatial variability of heavy metal concentrations in soil of auto-mechanic workshop clusters in Nsukka, Nigeria. Sci. Rep. 14(1), 9681. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s41598-024-60044-3 (2024).","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"53403_CR20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Boahen, E. et al. Potentially toxic elements\u2019 accumulation and health risk of consuming vegetables cultivated along the Accra-Tema motorway. J. Chem. 6438563. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1155\/2024\/6438563 (2024).","DOI":"10.1155\/2024\/6438563"},{"key":"53403_CR21","unstructured":"United States Geological Survey (USGS). 49 Elements by ICP-OES-MS, Multi-Acid Digestion Method. (2019). https:\/\/www.usgs.gov\/media\/files\/49-elements-icp-oes-ms-multi-acid-digestion-method"},{"issue":"3","key":"53403_CR22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"666","DOI":"10.1007\/s12161-021-02148-4","volume":"15","author":"SR Khan","year":"2022","unstructured":"Khan, S. R., Sharma, B., Chawla, P. A. & Bhatia, R. Inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometry (ICP-OES): A powerful analytical technique for elemental analysis. Food Anal. Methods 15(3), 666\u2013688. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s12161-021-02148-4 (2022).","journal-title":"Food Anal. Methods"},{"key":"53403_CR23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envres.2021.111273","volume":"198","author":"EA Okoye","year":"2021","unstructured":"Okoye, E. A. et al. Metal pollution of soil, plants, feed and food in the Niger Delta, Nigeria: Health risk assessment through meat and fish consumption. Environ. Res. 198, 111273. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.envres.2021.111273 (2021).","journal-title":"Environ. Res."},{"issue":"1","key":"53403_CR24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-021-01375-3","volume":"11","author":"H Onohuean","year":"2021","unstructured":"Onohuean, H., Okoh, A. I. & Nwodo, U. U. Epidemiologic potentials and correlational analysis of Vibrio species and virulence toxins from water sources in greater Bushenyi districts, Uganda. Sci. Rep. 11(1), 22429. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s41598-021-01375-3 (2021).","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"issue":"2","key":"53403_CR25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"189","DOI":"10.30476\/jhsss.2021.93527.1457","volume":"10","author":"GJ Udom","year":"2022","unstructured":"Udom, G. J. et al. Heavy metal content of a polyherbal drug: Any exposure-associated public health risks?. J. Health Sci. Surv. Syst. 10(2), 189\u2013196. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.30476\/jhsss.2021.93527.1457 (2022).","journal-title":"J. Health Sci. Surv. Syst."},{"key":"53403_CR26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/11786302241290068","author":"AK Abiy","year":"2024","unstructured":"Abiy, A. K., Tilahun, Y. G., Sorsa, S. S. & Seifu, B. Y. Heavy metal contamination in Omo River, Ethiopia: Environmental and human health risks. Environ. Health Insights. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/11786302241290068 (2024).","journal-title":"Environ. Health Insights."},{"key":"53403_CR27","unstructured":"(USEPA. Risk Assessment Guidance for Superfund Volume I: Human Health Evaluation Manual, Part, E. & Supplemental Guidance for Dermal Risk Assessment). United States Environmental Protection Agency; (2004). https:\/\/www.epa.gov\/risk\/risk-assessment-guidance-superfund-rags-part-e Accessed on April 7, 2025."},{"issue":"1","key":"53403_CR28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"31","DOI":"10.2174\/2212798409666171129173802","volume":"9","author":"S Igbiri","year":"2018","unstructured":"Igbiri, S. et al. Edible mushrooms from Niger Delta, Nigeria with heavy metal levels of public health concern: A human health risk assessment. Recent Pat. Food Nutr. Agric. 9(1), 31\u201341. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2174\/2212798409666171129173802 (2018).","journal-title":"Recent Pat. Food Nutr. Agric."},{"key":"53403_CR29","unstructured":"WHO\/FAO. General Standard for Contaminants and Toxins in Food and Feed (CODEX STAN 193\u20131995) (World Health Organization, 2015)."},{"key":"53403_CR30","unstructured":"WHO\/FAO. Guidelines for the Safe Use of Waste Water and Food Stuff: Waste Water in Agriculture Vol. 3, 988p (World Health Organization, 2013)."},{"key":"53403_CR31","unstructured":"Ayers, R. S. & Westcot, D. W. Water quality for Agriculture: FAO Irrigation and Drainage Paper (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 1985)."},{"key":"53403_CR32","volume-title":"Evaluation of certain food additives and contaminants: Eightieth report of the Joint FAO\/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives, volume 80.","author":"WHO\/FAO","year":"2016","unstructured":"WHO\/FAO. Evaluation of certain food additives and contaminants: Eightieth report of the Joint FAO\/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives, volume 80. (World Health Organization, 2016)."},{"key":"53403_CR33","unstructured":"Ministry of Environment, Finland. Government Decree on the Assessment of Soil Contamination and Remediation Needs. (2007)."},{"issue":"10","key":"53403_CR34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.heliyon.2024.e31600","volume":"10","author":"J Wanyama","year":"2024","unstructured":"Wanyama, J., Bwambale, E. & Nakawuka, P. Comparative performance assessment of pilot irrigation schemes in Uganda. Heliyon 10(10), e31600. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.heliyon.2024.e31600 (2024).","journal-title":"Heliyon"},{"key":"53403_CR35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Abure, T. Status of soil acidity under different land use types and soil depths: The case of Hojje watershed of Gomibora District, Hadiya Zone, Southern Ethiopia. Appl. Environ. Soil Sci. 7060766. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1155\/2022\/7060766 (2022).","DOI":"10.1155\/2022\/7060766"},{"issue":"12","key":"53403_CR36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0316009","volume":"19","author":"A Regasa","year":"2024","unstructured":"Regasa, A., Haile, W. & Abera, G. Soil acidity and fertility status of surface soils under different land uses in Sayo district of Oromia, western Ethiopia. PLoS One 19(12), e0316009. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0316009 (2024).","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"issue":"7","key":"53403_CR37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e28357","DOI":"10.1016\/j.heliyon.2024.e28357","volume":"10","author":"PB Angon","year":"2024","unstructured":"Angon, P. B. et al. Sources, effects and present perspectives of heavy metals contamination: soil, plants and human food chain. Heliyon 10 (7), e28357. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.heliyon.2024.e28357 (2024).","journal-title":"Heliyon"},{"key":"53403_CR38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envadv.2025.100620","volume":"19","author":"GJ Udom","year":"2025","unstructured":"Udom, G. J. et al. Heavy metal and metalloid pollution: A systematic review of health implications for pregnant women, children, and geriatrics in the East African region. Environ. Adv. 19, 100620. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.envadv.2025.100620 (2025).","journal-title":"Environ. Adv."},{"issue":"3","key":"53403_CR39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"42","DOI":"10.3390\/toxics9030042","volume":"9","author":"A Alengebawy","year":"2021","unstructured":"Alengebawy, A., Abdelkhalek, S. T., Qureshi, S. R. & Wang, M. Q. Heavy metals and pesticides toxicity in agricultural soil and plants: Ecological risks and human health implications. Toxics 9(3), 42. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/toxics9030042 (2021).","journal-title":"Toxics"},{"key":"53403_CR40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/11786302241310661","volume":"19","author":"B Negassa","year":"2025","unstructured":"Negassa, B., Dadi, D., Soboksa, N. E. & Fekadu, S. Presence of heavy metals in vegetables irrigated with wastewater-impacted rivers and its health risks in Ethiopia: Systematic review. Environ. Health Insights 19, 11786302241310661. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/11786302241310661 (2025).","journal-title":"Environ. Health Insights"},{"key":"53403_CR41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"57","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecoenv.2011.10.011","volume":"77","author":"Y Weldegebriel","year":"2012","unstructured":"Weldegebriel, Y., Chandravanshi, B. S. & Wondimu, T. Concentration levels of metals in vegetables grown in soils irrigated with river water in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf. 77, 57\u201363. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.ecoenv.2011.10.011 (2012).","journal-title":"Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf."},{"key":"53403_CR42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s10661-022-09789-w","volume":"194","author":"JC Egbueri","year":"2022","unstructured":"Egbueri, J. C., Enyigwe, M. T. & Ayejoto, D. A. Modeling the impact of potentially harmful elements on the groundwater quality of a mining area (Nigeria) by integrating NSFWQI, HERisk code, and HCs. Environ. Monit. Assess. 194, 150. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s10661-022-09789-w (2022).","journal-title":"Environ. Monit. Assess."},{"issue":"4","key":"53403_CR43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"335","DOI":"10.32394\/rpzh.2018.0038","volume":"69","author":"OE Orisakwe","year":"2018","unstructured":"Orisakwe, O. E., Dagur, E. A., Mbagwu, H. O. C., Udowelle, N. A. & Offor, S. J. Levels of some heavy metals in vegetables from artisanal mining sites of Dilimi River, Bukuru and Barkin Ladi North Central Nigeria: Any public health concern?. Rocz. Panstw. Zakl. Hig. 69(4), 335\u2013345. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.32394\/rpzh.2018.0038 (2018).","journal-title":"Rocz. Panstw. Zakl. Hig."},{"key":"53403_CR44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4655","DOI":"10.1007\/s42250-025-01380-3","volume":"8","author":"KO Boakye","year":"2025","unstructured":"Boakye, K. O. et al. Metal contamination and health risk in paddy soils and rice from Ghana\u2019s semi-deciduous forest zone. Chem. Afr. 8, 4655\u20134676. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s42250-025-01380-3 (2025).","journal-title":"Chem. Afr."},{"key":"53403_CR45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-025-17149-0","volume":"15","author":"JP Mensah","year":"2025","unstructured":"Mensah, J. P. et al. Health risks from persistent heavy metal contamination in crops and water at an abandoned naturally revegetated galamsey site in Ghana. Sci. Rep. 15, 34377. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s41598-025-17149-0 (2025).","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"issue":"8","key":"53403_CR46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s42452-020-03231-x","volume":"2","author":"FR Sulaiman","year":"2020","unstructured":"Sulaiman, F. R., Ibrahim, N. H. & Syed Ismail, S. N. Heavy metal (As, Cd, and Pb) concentration in selected leafy vegetables from Jengka, Malaysia, and potential health risks. SN Appl. Sci. 2(8), 1430. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s42452-020-03231-x (2020).","journal-title":"SN Appl. Sci."},{"issue":"1","key":"53403_CR47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/s40068-022-00261-9","volume":"11","author":"R Sultana","year":"2022","unstructured":"Sultana, R. et al. Heavy metals in commonly consumed root and leafy vegetables in Dhaka City, Bangladesh, and assessment of associated public health risks. Environ. Syst. Res. 11(1), 15. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s40068-022-00261-9 (2022).","journal-title":"Environ. Syst. Res."},{"issue":"1","key":"53403_CR48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"54","DOI":"10.1590\/S0103-90162012000100008","volume":"69","author":"F Guerra","year":"2012","unstructured":"Guerra, F. et al. Heavy metals in vegetables and potential risk for human health. Scientia Agricola. 69(1), 54\u201360. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1590\/S0103-90162012000100008 (2012).","journal-title":"Scientia Agricola."},{"issue":"4","key":"53403_CR49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph20042984","volume":"20","author":"A Najmi","year":"2023","unstructured":"Najmi, A. et al. Heavy metal contamination in leafy vegetables grown in Jazan region of Saudi Arabia: Assessment of possible human health hazards. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 20(4), 2984. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijerph20042984 (2023).","journal-title":"Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health"},{"key":"53403_CR50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"366","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2016.08.125","volume":"573","author":"AR Mwesigye","year":"2016","unstructured":"Mwesigye, A. R., Young, S. D., Bailey, E. H. & Tumwebaze, S. B. Population exposure to trace elements in the Kilembe copper mine area, Western Uganda: A pilot study. Sci. Total Environ. 573, 366\u2013375. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2016.08.125 (2016).","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"issue":"33","key":"53403_CR51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"41279","DOI":"10.1007\/s11356-020-10098-3","volume":"27","author":"C Hadjipanagiotou","year":"2020","unstructured":"Hadjipanagiotou, C. et al. Contamination of stream waters, sediments, and agricultural soil in the surroundings of an abandoned copper mine by potentially toxic elements and associated environmental and potential human health\u2013derived risks: A case study from Agrokipia, Cyprus. Environ. Sci. Pollut Res. 27(33), 41279\u201341298. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s11356-020-10098-3 (2020).","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Pollut Res."},{"issue":"4","key":"53403_CR52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1088","DOI":"10.3390\/cleantechnol4040066","volume":"4","author":"SM Rad","year":"2022","unstructured":"Rad, S. M., Ray, A. K. & Barghi, S. Water pollution and agriculture pesticide. Clean. Technol. 4 (4), 1088\u20131102. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/cleantechnol4040066 (2022).","journal-title":"Clean. Technol."},{"key":"53403_CR53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eti.2021.101504","volume":"22","author":"C Zamora-Ledezma","year":"2021","unstructured":"Zamora-Ledezma, C. et al. Heavy metal water pollution: A fresh look about hazards, novel and conventional remediation methods. Environ. Technol. Innov. 22, 101504. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.eti.2021.101504 (2021).","journal-title":"Environ. Technol. Innov."},{"key":"53403_CR54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.geoderma.2023.116750","volume":"441","author":"J Li","year":"2024","unstructured":"Li, J. et al. Effects of slopes, rainfall intensity and grass cover on runoff loss of mercury from floodplain soil in Oak Ridge TN: A laboratory pilot study. Geoderma. 441, 116750. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.geoderma.2023.116750 (2024).","journal-title":"Geoderma."},{"key":"53403_CR55","unstructured":"Abraham, M. R. Policy brief: The impacts of Kilembe mine and tailing sites on soil and water quality, foods, forage and humans. (2018). https:\/\/news.mak.ac.ug\/2018\/05\/policy-brief-the-impacts-of-kilembe-mine-and-tailing-sites-on-soil-and-water-quality-foods-forage-and-humans\/ Accessed on April 24, 2025."},{"issue":"2","key":"53403_CR56","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"634","DOI":"10.3390\/jox14020037","volume":"14","author":"M Saleem","year":"2024","unstructured":"Saleem, M. et al. Heavy metal(oid)s contamination and potential ecological risk assessment in agricultural soils. J. Xenobiotics 14(2), 634\u201350. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/jox14020037 (2024).","journal-title":"J. Xenobiotics"},{"key":"53403_CR57","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jtemin.2024.100173","volume":"9","author":"PE Ndimele","year":"2024","unstructured":"Ndimele, P. E. et al. Source apportionment, ecological and health risk assessment of potentially toxic elements in water, sediment and blackchin tilapia {Sarotherodon melanotheron (R\u00fcppell 1852)} from Lagos and Ologe Lagoons, Lagos State, Nigeria. J. Trace Elements Minerals. 9, 100173. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.jtemin.2024.100173 (2024).","journal-title":"J. Trace Elements Minerals."},{"key":"53403_CR58","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jtemin.2025.100218","volume":"12","author":"GC Suh","year":"2025","unstructured":"Suh, G. C. et al. Source apportionment, ecological and toxicological risk assessment of trace metals in agricultural soils of Wabane, South West Region, Cameroon. J. Trace Elem. Miner. 12, 100218. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.jtemin.2025.100218 (2025).","journal-title":"J. Trace Elem. Miner."},{"key":"53403_CR59","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fsoil.2022.1048057","author":"AMA Ahogle","year":"2023","unstructured":"Ahogle, A. M. A. et al. Heavy metals and trace elements contamination risks in peri-urban agricultural soils in Nairobi City Catchment, Kenya. Front. Soil Sci. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fsoil.2022.1048057 (2023).","journal-title":"Front. Soil Sci."},{"issue":"4","key":"53403_CR60","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"243","DOI":"10.18502\/japh.v5i4.6445","volume":"5","author":"Y Khajeamiri","year":"2021","unstructured":"Khajeamiri, Y., Sharifi, S., Moradpour, N. & Khajeamiri, A. A review on the effect of air pollution and exposure to PM, NO2, O3, SO2, CO and heavy metals on viral respiratory infections. J. Air Pollut Health. 5 (4), 243\u2013258. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.18502\/japh.v5i4.6445 (2021).","journal-title":"J. Air Pollut Health"},{"issue":"36","key":"53403_CR61","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"44906","DOI":"10.1007\/s11356-020-10950-6","volume":"27","author":"S Sharma","year":"2020","unstructured":"Sharma, S. et al. Effect of environmental toxicants on neuronal functions. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 27(36), 44906\u201344921. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s11356-020-10950-6 (2020).","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res."},{"key":"53403_CR62","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecoenv.2025.117792","volume":"291","author":"T Guo","year":"2025","unstructured":"Guo, T., Najafi, M. L. & Zhang, J. A systematic review of exposure to toxic elements and neurocognitive development in children. Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf. 291, 117792. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.ecoenv.2025.117792 (2025).","journal-title":"Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf."},{"key":"53403_CR63","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"113629","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijheh.2020.113629","volume":"230","author":"I Saleh","year":"2020","unstructured":"Saleh, I. et al. Effects of early and recent mercury and lead exposure on the neurodevelopment of children with elevated mercury and\/or developmental delays during lactation: a follow-up study. Int. J. Hyg. Environ. Health. 230, 113629. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.ijheh.2020.113629 (2020).","journal-title":"Int. J. Hyg. Environ. Health"},{"issue":"9","key":"53403_CR64","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e0274215","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0274215","volume":"17","author":"AJ Signes-Pastor","year":"2022","unstructured":"Signes-Pastor, A. J. et al. Arsenic exposure and respiratory outcomes during childhood in the INMA study. Plos One. 17 (9), e0274215. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0274215 (2022).","journal-title":"Plos One"},{"key":"53403_CR65","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecoenv.2023.115812","volume":"269","author":"H Chen","year":"2024","unstructured":"Chen, H., Wang, M. & Li, J. Exploring the association between two groups of metals with potentially opposing renal effects and renal function in middle-aged and older adults: Evidence from an explainable machine learning method. Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf. 269, 115812. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.ecoenv.2023.115812 (2024).","journal-title":"Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf."},{"key":"53403_CR66","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"113483","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijheh.2020.113483","volume":"226","author":"MP Mu\u00f1oz","year":"2020","unstructured":"Mu\u00f1oz, M. P. et al. Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and its association with heavy metals in children from northern Chile. Int. J. Hyg. Environ. Health. 226, 113483. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.ijheh.2020.113483 (2020).","journal-title":"Int. J. Hyg. Environ. Health"},{"issue":"7","key":"53403_CR67","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"269","DOI":"10.1007\/s11270-021-05212-1","volume":"232","author":"MA Rahman","year":"2021","unstructured":"Rahman, M. A., Kumar, S., Lamb, D. & Rahman, M. M. Health risk assessment of arsenic, manganese, and iron from drinking water for high school children. Water Air Soil Pollut 232(7), 269. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s11270-021-05212-1 (2021).","journal-title":"Water Air Soil Pollut"},{"key":"53403_CR68","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"107448","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envint.2022.107448","volume":"168","author":"S Kobayashi","year":"2022","unstructured":"Goutam Mukherjee, A. et al. Heavy metal and metalloid-induced reproductive toxicity. Environ. Toxicol. Pharmacol. 92, 103859. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.etap.2022.103859 (2022).","journal-title":"Environ. Int."},{"key":"53403_CR69","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"103859","DOI":"10.1016\/j.etap.2022.103859","volume":"92","author":"A Goutam Mukherjee","year":"2022","unstructured":"Kobayashi, S., Itoh, S. & Miyashita, C. Impact of prenatal exposure to mercury and selenium on neurodevelopmental delay in children in the Japan environment and Children\u2019s study using the ASQ-3 questionnaire: a prospective birth cohort. Environ. Int.\u00a0168, 107448. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.envint.2022.107448 (2022).","journal-title":"Environ. Toxicol. Pharmacol."},{"issue":"14","key":"53403_CR70","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"7520","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms22147520","volume":"22","author":"LC Abbott","year":"2021","unstructured":"Abbott, L. C. & Nigussie, F. Mercury toxicity and neurogenesis in the mammalian brain. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 22 (14), 7520. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijms22147520 (2021).","journal-title":"Int. J. Mol. Sci."},{"key":"53403_CR71","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"107918","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envint.2023.107918","volume":"174","author":"H Chen","year":"2023","unstructured":"Chen, H. et al. Prenatal arsenic exposure, arsenic metabolism and neurocognitive development of 2-year-old children in low-arsenic areas. Environ. Int. 174, 107918. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.envint.2023.107918 (2023).","journal-title":"Environ. Int."},{"issue":"3","key":"53403_CR72","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"114","DOI":"10.37349\/ec.2023.00012","volume":"1","author":"F Gorini","year":"2023","unstructured":"Gorini, F. & Tonacci, A. Toxic metals in pregnancy and congenital heart defects. insights and new perspectives for a technology-driven reduction in food sources. Expl. Cardiol. 1(3), 114\u2013140. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.37349\/ec.2023.00012 (2023).","journal-title":"Expl. Cardiol."},{"issue":"2","key":"53403_CR73","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph18020738","volume":"18","author":"H Elonheimo","year":"2021","unstructured":"Elonheimo, H., Lange, R., Tolonen, H. & Kolossa-Gehring, M. Environmental substances associated with osteoporosis\u2013A scoping review. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public. Health. 18(2), 738. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijerph18020738 (2021).","journal-title":"Int. J. Environ. Res. Public. Health."},{"key":"53403_CR74","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chemosphere.2020.128350","volume":"262","author":"JG Paithankar","year":"2021","unstructured":"Paithankar, J. G. et al. Heavy metal-associated health hazards: An interplay of oxidative stress and signal transduction. Chemosphere 262, 128350. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.chemosphere.2020.128350 (2021).","journal-title":"Chemosphere"},{"key":"53403_CR75","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Anonymous Alzheimer\u2019s disease facts and figures. Alzheimer\u2019s Dement. 21, e70235. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/alz.70235 (2025).","DOI":"10.1002\/alz.70235"},{"issue":"Suppl 1","key":"53403_CR76","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"S148","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1447-0594.2010.00588.x","volume":"10","author":"T Aosaki","year":"2010","unstructured":"Aosaki, T., Miura, M., Suzuki, T., Nishimura, K. & Masuda, M. Acetylcholine-dopamine balance hypothesis in the striatum: An update. Geriatr. Gerontol. Int. 10(Suppl 1), S148\u2013S157. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/j.1447-0594.2010.00588.x (2010).","journal-title":"Geriatr. Gerontol. Int."},{"issue":"1","key":"53403_CR77","first-page":"17","volume":"5","author":"AA Alghasham","year":"2011","unstructured":"Alghasham, A. A., Meki, A. R. & Ismail, H. A. Association of blood lead level with elevated blood pressure in hypertensive patients. Int. J. Health. Sci. 5(1), 17\u201327 (2011).","journal-title":"Int. J. Health. Sci."},{"issue":"4","key":"53403_CR78","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"733","DOI":"10.1080\/10807039.2012.688697","volume":"18","author":"Q Changsheng","year":"2012","unstructured":"Changsheng, Q. et al. Monte Carlo simulation-based health risk assessment of heavy metal soil pollution: a case study in the Qixia Mining Area, China. Hum. Ecol. Risk Assess. Int. J. 18 (4), 733\u2013750. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/10807039.2012.688697 (2012).","journal-title":"Hum. Ecol. Risk Assess. Int. J."},{"key":"53403_CR79","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s12011-025-04920-7","author":"E Nwanaforo","year":"2025","unstructured":"Nwanaforo, E. et al. Monte Carlo-based assessment of toxic metal contaminations in urban agricultural systems: A case study of lead, cadmium, and copper in vegetables and fish from Nigeria. Biol. Trace. Elem. Res. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s12011-025-04920-7 (2025).","journal-title":"Biol. Trace. Elem. Res."},{"key":"53403_CR80","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.hazadv.2025.100934","volume":"20","author":"TT Falae","year":"2025","unstructured":"Falae, T. T. et al. Probabilistic health risk assessment of heavy metals in vegetables cultivated near tin mining sites in Jos, Plateau State, Nigeria. J. Hazard. Mater. Adv. 20, 100934. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.hazadv.2025.100934 (2025).","journal-title":"J. Hazard. Mater. Adv."},{"key":"53403_CR81","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gsd.2023.100924","volume":"21","author":"MO Isinkaye","year":"2023","unstructured":"Isinkaye, M. O., Agbi, J. I. & Lewicka, S. Radiotoxicity and health risk assessment of 222Rn in groundwater using statistical and Monte Carlo simulation approaches. Groundwater Sustain. Dev. 21, 100924. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.gsd.2023.100924 (2023).","journal-title":"Groundwater Sustain. Dev."},{"key":"53403_CR82","volume-title":"Guiding Principles for Monte Carlo Analysis","author":"USEPA","year":"1997","unstructured":"USEPA. Guiding Principles for Monte Carlo Analysis (United States Environmental Protection Agency, 1997)."},{"key":"53403_CR83","unstructured":"National Research Council, Plum, L. M. & Rink L Science and Judgment in Risk Assessment (National Research Council, 1994)."}],"container-title":["Scientific Reports"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41598-026-53403-9","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41598-026-53403-9.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41598-026-53403-9.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,7]],"date-time":"2026-08-07T13:40:54Z","timestamp":1786110054000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41598-026-53403-9"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,21]]},"references-count":83,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,12]]}},"alternative-id":["53403"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s41598-026-53403-9","relation":{},"ISSN":["2045-2322"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2045-2322","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,21]]},"assertion":[{"value":"21 November 2025","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"12 May 2026","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"21 May 2026","order":3,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"The authors declare no competing interests.","order":1,"name":"Ethics","label":"Competing interests","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}}],"article-number":"24506"}}