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The bulk density of the composites increased progressively from 1.81\u00a0g\/cm\n                    <jats:sup>3<\/jats:sup>\n                    for the control sample to 2.86\u00a0g\/cm\n                    <jats:sup>3<\/jats:sup>\n                    at 50 wt.% TiO\n                    <jats:sub>2<\/jats:sub>\n                    , while apparent porosity decreased from 33.47 to 23.48%. Water absorption was correspondingly reduced from 8.43 to 5.34% after 24\u00a0h immersion, confirming the pore-filling effect of TiO\n                    <jats:sub>2<\/jats:sub>\n                    . XRD and FTIR analyses indicated the coexistence of amorphous aluminosilicate gel, residual quartz, and anatase reflections, with Ti\u2013O and Ti\u2013O\u2013Si vibrations confirming the physical embedding of TiO\n                    <jats:sub>2<\/jats:sub>\n                    without disrupting the geopolymeric framework. SEM micrographs revealed that higher TiO\n                    <jats:sub>2<\/jats:sub>\n                    content led to a denser morphology with fewer pores, confirming densification. DSC\/TGA revealed that TiO\n                    <jats:sub>2<\/jats:sub>\n                    addition enhanced stability and reduced low-temperature mass loss. Pin-on-disc testing showed that adding 40 wt.% TiO\n                    <jats:sub>2<\/jats:sub>\n                    significantly improved tribological performance, reducing the wear rate from 3.45\u2009\u00d7\u200910\n                    <jats:sup>\u22125<\/jats:sup>\n                    to 1.12\u2009\u00d7\u200910\n                    <jats:sup>\u22125<\/jats:sup>\n                    mm\n                    <jats:sup>3<\/jats:sup>\n                    \/N m and the steady-state friction coefficient from 0.36 to 0.29. These results confirm the dual role of TiO\n                    <jats:sub>2<\/jats:sub>\n                    as a microstructural densifier and a reinforcing agent, enabling the development of geopolymer composites with enhanced durability, thermal stability, and wear resistance suitable for high-performance structural applications in extreme environments.\n                  <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-026-54064-4","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,27]],"date-time":"2026-05-27T12:56:30Z","timestamp":1779886590000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Assessment of tribological performance and thermal stability of metakaolin-based geopolymer composites reinforced with high TiO2 concentration"],"prefix":"10.1038","volume":"16","author":[{"given":"Mohamed Ali","family":"Hassan","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Shiamaa","family":"Awys","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mahmoud Abd El-Aleem","family":"Ali Ali EL-Remaily","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,27]]},"reference":[{"key":"54064_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shukla, S. 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