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A total of 120 apparently healthy fish, with an average weight of 3.03\u2009\u00b1\u20090.02\u00a0g, were randomly assigned to four equal groups, each consisting of three replicates. Four experimental diets were formulated: a basal control diet (CON), a basal diet supplemented with 1\u00a0g of lactic acid per kg of diet (LA), a basal diet containing 10\u00a0g of rosemary per kilogram of diet (RM), and a basal diet that included both supplements (LA\u2009+\u2009RM). Fish were fed these diets for a duration of 60 days. The results indicated that either lactic acid or rosemary alone or in combination had a greater growth-stimulating impact than the CON group (\n                    <jats:italic>P<\/jats:italic>\n                    \u2009\u2264\u20090.05) with superiority to the combination group (LA\u2009+\u2009RM group). Activities of aspartate aminotransferase and alanine aminotransferase, along with creatinine and urea levels, were significantly reduced (\n                    <jats:italic>P<\/jats:italic>\n                    \u2009\u2264\u20090.05) in the groups of lactic acid and rosemary alone or in combination relative to the CON group. Total protein and albumin concentrations were elevated in the LA\u2009+\u2009RM group (\n                    <jats:italic>P<\/jats:italic>\n                    \u2009\u2264\u20090.05). Intestinal histology revealed normal morphology across groups, with increased villus height, intestinal villi spacing, and goblet cell density in LA\u2009+\u2009RM (\n                    <jats:italic>P<\/jats:italic>\n                    \u2009\u2264\u20090.05) without pathological lesions in the liver and spleen. Antioxidant, immune, and growth-related gene expressions were upregulated in RM and LA\u2009+\u2009RM groups. In conclusion, rosemary supplementation, alone or combined with lactic acid, enhanced fish health status and upregulated target genes without pathological lesions with superiority to the combination treatment.\n                  <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-026-56341-8","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,12]],"date-time":"2026-06-12T07:23:51Z","timestamp":1781249031000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Dietary lactic acid and rosemary leaf supplementation enhances growth and immune responses in Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus)"],"prefix":"10.1038","volume":"16","author":[{"given":"Essam","family":"Menshawy","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Eman N. 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