{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,25]],"date-time":"2026-08-25T12:22:42Z","timestamp":1787660562612,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":33,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,8]],"date-time":"2026-07-08T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1783468800000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,25]],"date-time":"2026-08-25T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1787616000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":48,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100003725","name":"National Research Foundation of Korea","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["RS-2026-25476844"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["RS-2026-25476844"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100003725","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Korea AeroSpace Administration","award":["RS-2022-00165802"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["RS-2022-00165802"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sci Rep"],"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>\n                    The international lunar navigation baseline\u2014eight satellites in elliptical lunar frozen orbits (ELFOs) with\n                    <jats:inline-formula>\n                      <jats:tex-math>$$\\omega =90^{\\circ }$$<\/jats:tex-math>\n                    <\/jats:inline-formula>\n                    \u2014provides robust south-polar PNT coverage but leaves near-side mid-latitudes largely unserved. This gap directly affects the Korea Aerospace Administration (KASA) 2032 lander mission, whose candidate sites span latitudes\n                    <jats:inline-formula>\n                      <jats:tex-math>$$40^{\\circ }$$<\/jats:tex-math>\n                    <\/jats:inline-formula>\n                    \u2013\n                    <jats:inline-formula>\n                      <jats:tex-math>$$70^{\\circ }$$<\/jats:tex-math>\n                    <\/jats:inline-formula>\n                    . We propose the Korean Lunar Navigation System (KLNS): five augmentation satellites in\n                    <jats:inline-formula>\n                      <jats:tex-math>$$\\omega =270^{\\circ }$$<\/jats:tex-math>\n                    <\/jats:inline-formula>\n                    ELFOs that concentrate dwell time over the northern hemisphere. A two-stage optimisation is employed. First, every candidate orbit in a 10,368-element search space is propagated for 720 hours under a perturbed model (lunar\n                    <jats:inline-formula>\n                      <jats:tex-math>$$J_2$$<\/jats:tex-math>\n                    <\/jats:inline-formula>\n                    + Earth third-body) and screened against four stability criteria, removing 2864 (27.6%) dynamically infeasible candidates. Second, a greedy sequential algorithm with hard S-ROI protection selects five KLNS satellites that raise N40\u201370 PNT availability from 0.0 to 89.5%, far exceeding the 50% target, while preserving 99.7% south-polar coverage. The stability-filtered greedy solution outperforms a\n                    <jats:inline-formula>\n                      <jats:tex-math>$$100\\times 50$$<\/jats:tex-math>\n                    <\/jats:inline-formula>\n                    genetic-algorithm benchmark (85.6%), demonstrating that a well-designed pre-filter can obviate more expensive metaheuristics. Site-specific evaluation confirms 92.5\u201394.2% availability at all three northern KASA candidate landing sites under the augmented constellation.\n                  <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-026-60190-w","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,8]],"date-time":"2026-07-08T13:26:01Z","timestamp":1783517161000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Korean lunar navigation constellation with stability-filtered optimisation"],"prefix":"10.1038","volume":"16","author":[{"given":"Seungsoo","family":"Yoo","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Gyu-In","family":"Jee","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4192-2146","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sun Yong","family":"Kim","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,8]]},"reference":[{"key":"60190_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Israel, D. J. et al. LunaNet: A flexible and extensible lunar exploration communications and navigation infrastructure. In Proceedings of the IEEE Aerospace Conference 1\u201314 (Big Sky, MT, USA, 2020).","DOI":"10.1109\/AERO47225.2020.9172509"},{"key":"60190_CR2","unstructured":"NASA, ESA & JAXA. LunaNet Interoperability Specification (LNIS), Version 5 Baseline. NASA\/TP-20210021073 Rev5 (2025). https:\/\/www.nasa.gov\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/02\/lunanet-interoperability-specification-v5-baseline.pdf. Accessed 26 April 2026."},{"key":"60190_CR3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Giordano, P., Malman, F., Swinden, R., Zoccarato, P. & Ventura-Traveset, J. The Lunar Pathfinder PNT experiment and Moonlight navigation service: the future of lunar position, navigation and timing. In Proceedings of the 2022 International Technical Meeting of the Institute of Navigation 632\u2013642 (Long Beach, CA, USA, 2022). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.33012\/2022.18225","DOI":"10.33012\/2022.18225"},{"key":"60190_CR4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Murata, M., Kawano, I. & Kogure, S. Lunar navigation satellite system and positioning accuracy evaluation. In Proceedings of the 2022 International Technical Meeting of the Institute of Navigation 582\u2013586 (Long Beach, CA, USA, 2022). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.33012\/2022.18220","DOI":"10.33012\/2022.18220"},{"key":"60190_CR5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Pereira, F., Reed, P. M. & Selva, D. Multi-objective design of a lunar GNSS. NAVIGATION J. Inst. Navig.69, navi.504. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.33012\/navi.504 (2022).","DOI":"10.33012\/navi.504"},{"key":"60190_CR6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Sch\u00f6nfeldt, M. A system study about a lunar navigation satellite transmitter system. In 2020 European Navigation Conference (ENC) 1\u201310 (Dresden, Germany, 2020). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.23919\/ENC48637.2020.9317521.","DOI":"10.23919\/ENC48637.2020.9317521"},{"key":"60190_CR7","unstructured":"NASA Space Science Data Coordinated Archive. Queqiao-2 (Magpie Bridge 2) spacecraft entry. https:\/\/nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov\/nmc\/spacecraft\/display.action?id=QUEQIAO-2 (2024). Accessed 26 April 2026."},{"key":"60190_CR8","unstructured":"Jatan.space. Achievements and shortfalls in global lunar exploration in 2025. Moon Monday Issue #255. https:\/\/jatan.space\/moon-monday-issue-255\/ (2025). Accessed 26 April 2026."},{"key":"60190_CR9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"347","DOI":"10.3390\/s16030347","volume":"16","author":"V Capuano","year":"2016","unstructured":"Capuano, V. et al. Standalone GPS L1 C\/A receiver for lunar missions. Sensors 16, 347. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s16030347 (2016).","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"60190_CR10","unstructured":"Korea Aerospace Administration (KASA). Press release: Public hearing on the establishment of the Republic of Korea lunar exploration mission (in Korean). https:\/\/www.kasa.go.kr\/prog\/plcyBrf\/brief\/kor\/sub01_01_04\/view.do (2026). Accessed 26 April 2026."},{"key":"60190_CR11","unstructured":"E-Today. KASA holds public hearing on lunar exploration mission\u20142032 lander mission disclosed (in Korean). https:\/\/www.etoday.co.kr\/news\/view\/2569109 (2026). Accessed 26 April 2026."},{"key":"60190_CR12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"53","DOI":"10.1007\/BF03256476","volume":"54","author":"TA Ely","year":"2006","unstructured":"Ely, T. A. & Lieb, E. Constellations of elliptical inclined lunar orbits providing polar and global coverage. J. Astronaut. Sci. 54, 53\u201367. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/BF03256476 (2006).","journal-title":"J. Astronaut. Sci."},{"key":"60190_CR13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Folta, D. & Quinn, D. Lunar frozen orbits. In Proceedings of the AIAA\/AAS Astrodynamics Specialist Conference and Exhibit AIAA 2006-6749 (Keystone, CO, USA, 2006). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2514\/6.2006-6749","DOI":"10.2514\/6.2006-6749"},{"key":"60190_CR14","unstructured":"Korea Aerospace Administration (KASA). Republic of Korea space science and exploration roadmap (in Korean). Approved at the 4th National Space Committee. https:\/\/www.kasa.go.kr\/prog\/bbsArticle\/BBSMSTR_000000000020\/view.do?bbsId=BBSMSTR_000000000020&nttId=B000000002620Nm7xN7 (2025). Accessed 26 April 2026."},{"key":"60190_CR15","unstructured":"Korea Aerospace Administration (KASA). Press release: lunar exploration phase 2 (lunar lander development) project officially launched (in Korean). https:\/\/www.kasa.go.kr\/prog\/bbsArticle\/BBSMSTR_000000000010\/view.do?bbsId=BBSMSTR_000000000010&nttId=B000000000704Ir7gM0 (2024). Accessed 26 April 2026."},{"key":"60190_CR16","unstructured":"Hong, A. South Korea narrows 2032 moon lander sites to 40\u201370 degree latitudes. Chosun Biz. https:\/\/biz.chosun.com\/en\/en-science\/2026\/03\/25\/T2JUDPWANBCTLI65JGVN34FDBE\/ (2026). Accessed 26 April 2026."},{"key":"60190_CR17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Arcia Gil, A. D., Renwick, D., Cappelletti, C. & Blunt, P. Methodology for optimizing a constellation of a lunar global navigation system with a multi-objective optimization algorithm. Acta Astronaut.204, 348\u2013357. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.actaastro.2023.01.003 (2023).","DOI":"10.1016\/j.actaastro.2023.01.003"},{"key":"60190_CR18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Bhamidipati, S., Mina, T., Sanchez, A. & Gao, G. Satellite constellation design for a lunar navigation and communication system. NAVIGATION J. Inst. Navig.70, navi.613. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.33012\/navi.613 (2023).","DOI":"10.33012\/navi.613"},{"key":"60190_CR19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2739","DOI":"10.1016\/j.asr.2020.05.018","volume":"66","author":"A Del\u00e9paut","year":"2020","unstructured":"Del\u00e9paut, A. et al. Use of GNSS for lunar missions and plans for lunar in-orbit development. Adv. Space Res. 66, 2739\u20132756. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.asr.2020.05.018 (2020).","journal-title":"Adv. Space Res."},{"key":"60190_CR20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Battin, R. H. An Introduction to the Mathematics and Methods of Astrodynamics Revised edn (AIAA, Reston, VA, USA, 1999). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2514\/4.861543","DOI":"10.2514\/4.861543"},{"key":"60190_CR21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Chao, C. C. Applied Orbit Perturbation and Maintenance (The Aerospace Press, El Segundo, CA, USA) https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2514\/4.989179 (2005).","DOI":"10.2514\/4.989179"},{"key":"60190_CR22","unstructured":"Winternitz, L. B., Bamford, W. A. & Heckler, G. W. The design of a flexible, interoperable navigation signal for future lunar missions. In Proceedings of the ION ITM (Long Beach, CA, USA, 2025). https:\/\/ntrs.nasa.gov\/citations\/20250000725."},{"key":"60190_CR23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3088","DOI":"10.3390\/electronics13153088","volume":"13","author":"I Kim","year":"2024","unstructured":"Kim, I., Han, S. I. & Har, D. Operational tests for delay-tolerant network between the Moon and Earth using the Korea Pathfinder Lunar Orbiter in lunar orbit. Electronics 13, 3088. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/electronics13153088 (2024).","journal-title":"Electronics"},{"key":"60190_CR24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Kang, M., Jeong, H., Park, J., Song, J. & Kee, C. Design of navigation satellite constellation for lunar south pole PNT (in Korean). J. Position. Navig. Timing 14, 131\u2013138. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.11003\/JPNT.2025.14.2.131 (2025).","DOI":"10.11003\/JPNT.2025.14.2.131"},{"key":"60190_CR25","volume-title":"Engineering Satellite-Based Navigation and Timing: Global Navigation Satellite Systems, Signals, and Receivers","author":"JW Betz","year":"2016","unstructured":"Betz, J. W. Engineering Satellite-Based Navigation and Timing: Global Navigation Satellite Systems, Signals, and Receivers (Wiley, Hoboken, NJ, USA, 2016)."},{"key":"60190_CR26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"668","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1231507","volume":"339","author":"MT Zuber","year":"2013","unstructured":"Zuber, M. T. et al. Gravity field of the Moon from the Gravity Recovery and Interior Laboratory (GRAIL) mission. Science 339, 668\u2013671. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1126\/science.1231507 (2013).","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"60190_CR27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1415","DOI":"10.1002\/jgre.20097","volume":"118","author":"AS Konopliv","year":"2013","unstructured":"Konopliv, A. S. et al. The JPL lunar gravity field to spherical harmonic degree 660 from the GRAIL primary mission. J. Geophys. Res. Planets 118, 1415\u20131434. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/jgre.20097 (2013).","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Planets"},{"key":"60190_CR28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Montenbruck, O. & Gill, E. Satellite Orbits: Models, Methods, and Applications (Springer, Berlin, Germany) https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/978-3-642-58351-3 (2000).","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-642-58351-3"},{"key":"60190_CR29","volume-title":"Fundamentals of Astrodynamics and Applications","author":"DA Vallado","year":"2013","unstructured":"Vallado, D. A. Fundamentals of Astrodynamics and Applications 4th edn. (Microcosm Press, Hawthorne, CA, USA, 2013).","edition":"4"},{"key":"60190_CR30","volume-title":"Understanding GPS\/GNSS: Principles and Applications","author":"ED Kaplan","year":"2017","unstructured":"Kaplan, E. D. & Hegarty, C. J. Understanding GPS\/GNSS: Principles and Applications 3rd edn. (Artech House, Norwood, MA, USA, 2017).","edition":"3"},{"key":"60190_CR31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"10158","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-023-37348-x","volume":"13","author":"K Wang","year":"2023","unstructured":"Wang, K. et al. Multi-orbit lunar GNSS constellation design with distant retrograde orbit and Halo orbit combination. Sci. Rep. 13, 10158. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s41598-023-37348-x (2023).","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"60190_CR32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3382","DOI":"10.1002\/2014GL060027","volume":"41","author":"FG Lemoine","year":"2014","unstructured":"Lemoine, F. G. et al. GRGM900C: A degree 900 lunar gravity model from GRAIL primary and extended mission data. Geophys. Res. Lett. 41, 3382\u20133389 (2014).","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"60190_CR33","unstructured":"Goossens, S. et al. A global degree and order 1200 model of the lunar gravity field using GRAIL mission data. In 47th Lunar and Planetary Science Conference abstract 1484 (The Woodlands, TX, USA, 2016). https:\/\/www.hou.usra.edu\/meetings\/lpsc2016\/pdf\/1484.pdf."}],"container-title":["Scientific Reports"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41598-026-60190-w","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41598-026-60190-w.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41598-026-60190-w.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,25]],"date-time":"2026-08-25T11:35:08Z","timestamp":1787657708000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41598-026-60190-w"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,8]]},"references-count":33,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,12]]}},"alternative-id":["60190"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s41598-026-60190-w","relation":{"has-preprint":[{"id-type":"doi","id":"10.21203\/rs.3.rs-9603437\/v1","asserted-by":"object"}]},"ISSN":["2045-2322"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2045-2322","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,8]]},"assertion":[{"value":"4 May 2026","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"25 June 2026","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"8 July 2026","order":3,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"The authors declare no competing interests.","order":1,"name":"Ethics","label":"Competing interests","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}}],"article-number":"26657"}}