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Among various techniques, low-temperature extrusion-based 3D printing has shown promise for hydrogel scaffold fabrication, as rapid solidification under controlled cooling can improve shape retention during deposition. However, commercial low-temperature DIW systems are often expensive, closed-source, and difficult to customize. Moreover, most require a two-step post-processing workflow involving external freeze-thaw cycles, which can damage structures through mechanical disturbance and temperature gradients, increasing contamination risk. To address these issues, we developed a low-cost, open-source low-temperature 3D printing platform by modifying a commercial FDM printer with custom hardware and upgraded software. It maintains stable\u2009\u2212\u200930\u00a0\u00b0C\u2009\u00b1\u20091\u00a0\u00b0C and supports in-situ freezing and freeze-thaw processing. Using a Poly(vinyl alcohol)-lignosulfonate sodium-TEMPO-oxidized cellulose nanofibrils (PVA-LS-TOCNF) hydrogel as the model ink, we achieved stable printing of various patterns and mechanical test specimens, with tensile properties comparable to those from ex-situ freeze-thaw methods. Overall, this platform significantly lowers barriers to low-temperature hydrogel 3D printing and improves accessibility.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-026-60330-2","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,30]],"date-time":"2026-06-30T22:38:48Z","timestamp":1782859128000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["An open-source 3D printing system enabling in-situ freeze-thaw processing of hydrogels"],"prefix":"10.1038","volume":"16","author":[{"given":"Guangteng","family":"Zhang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0009-9267-4937","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yadong","family":"Chen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Meichen","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Da","family":"Ge","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Qiang","family":"Du","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Li","family":"Ke","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Tianxing","family":"Gong","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Feng","family":"Qi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Juncheng","family":"Bao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,30]]},"reference":[{"key":"60330_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"925321","DOI":"10.3389\/fmats.2022.925321","volume":"9","author":"N Liu","year":"2022","unstructured":"Liu, N., Zhang, X., Guo, Q., Wu, T. & Wang, Y. 3D Bioprinted scaffolds for tissue repair and regeneration. 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