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Its risk is increasing from the lowland Terai to the Hill and Mountain regions due to urbanisation and global warming. Practical and innovative approaches are needed to better understand the impact on\n                    <jats:italic>Aedes<\/jats:italic>\n                    mosquito habitats that are the main targets for vector control. We conducted a pilot feasibility study to characterise\n                    <jats:italic>Aedes aegypti<\/jats:italic>\n                    and\n                    <jats:italic>Aedes albopictus<\/jats:italic>\n                    breeding sites, examine physicochemical parameters (total dissolved solids, pH, salinity, dissolved oxygen), and explore the utility of infrared thermal imaging as a novel tool for measuring temperature parameters of habitats across distinct ecological regions. We found that plastic containers, tin\/metal items, and rubber tyres were common breeding sites. The dengue vectors\n                    <jats:italic>Ae. aegypti<\/jats:italic>\n                    and\n                    <jats:italic>Ae. albopictus<\/jats:italic>\n                    were identified in a variety of container types across most locations. Overall, there was reasonable agreement between the thermal camera and standard thermometer, although the camera recorded approximately 1\u00a0\u00b0C lower and showed divergence at higher temperatures. Most aquatic habitat temperatures were within an optimal mosquito breeding range (mid-20s to low 30s\u00a0\u00b0C) and lower than non-breeding site temperatures. The breeding site water temperatures in the Terai region were\u2009~\u20094\u00a0\u00b0C higher than the Mid-Hill and Mountain regions. Aquatic habitat temperatures were also found to be significantly correlated with dissolved oxygen. Thermal imaging case studies provided key visual insights into varying temperatures in complex\n                    <jats:italic>Aedes<\/jats:italic>\n                    microclimates. Notably, inner rubber tyre temperatures remained relatively stable despite significant external temperature fluctuations and external tyre temperatures exceeding 50\u00a0\u00b0C. Thermal imaging shows promise for the field characterisation of mosquito breeding sites, but it is not interchangeable with standard thermometry without qualification, including calibration and uncertainty analysis.\n                  <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-026-61694-1","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,27]],"date-time":"2026-07-27T08:37:50Z","timestamp":1785141470000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["I\ufeffnfrared thermal imaging to determine temperature parameters of dengue vector habitats across ecological regions of Nepal: a pilot feasibility study"],"prefix":"10.1038","volume":"16","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3330-7629","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Louise A.","family":"Kelly-Hope","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ajit Kumar","family":"Karna","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Bijay","family":"Bajracharya","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Satya Raj","family":"Paudel","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Srijana","family":"KC","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Pooja","family":"Shah","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Matthew","family":"Baylis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Gokarna","family":"Dahal","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Deena","family":"Shrestha","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,27]]},"reference":[{"key":"61694_CR1","unstructured":"Government of Nepal. 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