{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,14]],"date-time":"2026-07-14T06:05:22Z","timestamp":1784009122638,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":55,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,14]],"date-time":"2026-07-14T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1783987200000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,14]],"date-time":"2026-07-14T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1783987200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100004114","name":"Leibniz-Institut f\u00fcr Angewandte Geophysik","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100004114","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sci Rep"],"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>Understanding how rock properties change with depth is crucial for a variety of geoengineering applications. Even rocks that are homogenous at both micro and macro scales, such as Bentheim sandstone, lose this characteristic once fractured. While recent studies have shown how concomitant changes in stress, temperature and pore pressure affects the evolution of intact sample permeability at depths, an equivalent study on fractured material is missing. Therefore, by combining a multi-methodological approach consisting of rock deformation experiments simulating depth conditions up to 4\u00a0km, thin section analysis and fluid composition analysis of water samples, the evolution of permeability of fractured Bentheim sandstone is investigated in this study. Results suggests that fine particles produced by the fracturing and the movements along these fractures play a crucial role in permeability evolution. When these particles are removed, the fracture constitutes a preferential pathway and, together with the chemical processes occurring on the rock\u2013fluid system, lead to a 3\u20137 times reduction in permeability followed by a complete recovery of it after a simulated burial and exhumation path. On the contrary, when these particles are still present within the fracture zone, they impede fluid flow. This causes a slightly reduction of permeability during the burial path followed by almost constant values of permeability throughout the exhumation path. These findings provide crucial information for georeservoir applications and the transfer of results from laboratory experiments to in situ conditions for a correct prediction of hydraulic properties.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-026-61950-4","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,14]],"date-time":"2026-07-14T05:16:45Z","timestamp":1784006205000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Mechanical and hydraulic properties of fractured Bentheim sandstone at different laboratory-simulated depths"],"prefix":"10.1038","volume":"16","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8379-6291","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Marco","family":"Fazio","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Domenico C. G.","family":"Ravid\u00e0","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Christian","family":"Ostertag-Henning","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Martin","family":"Sauter","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,14]]},"reference":[{"key":"61950_CR1","unstructured":"Eurostat. (n.d.). Renewable Energy Statistics. Retrieved 15 January 2026, from https:\/\/ec.europa.eu\/eurostat\/statistics-explained\/index.php?title=Renewable_energy_statistics."},{"issue":"12","key":"61950_CR2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4317","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enpol.2008.09.058","volume":"36","author":"J Gibbins","year":"2008","unstructured":"Gibbins, J. & Chalmers, H. Carbon capture and storage. Energy Policy 36(12), 4317\u20134322. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.enpol.2008.09.058 (2008).","journal-title":"Energy Policy"},{"issue":"14","key":"61950_CR3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"5185","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1115347109","volume":"109","author":"ML Szulczewski","year":"2012","unstructured":"Szulczewski, M. L., MacMinn, C. W., Herzog, H. J. & Juanes, R. Lifetime of carbon capture and storage as a climate-change mitigation technology. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 109(14), 5185\u20135189. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1073\/pnas.1115347109 (2012).","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A."},{"issue":"1","key":"61950_CR4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s12665-016-6326-6","volume":"76","author":"AE Bond","year":"2017","unstructured":"Bond, A. E. et al. A synthesis of approaches for modelling coupled thermal\u2013hydraulic\u2013mechanical\u2013chemical processes in a single novaculite fracture experiment. Environ. Earth Sci. 76(1), 12. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s12665-016-6326-6 (2017).","journal-title":"Environ. Earth Sci."},{"issue":"1853","key":"61950_CR5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1095","DOI":"10.1098\/rsta.2006.1953","volume":"365","author":"S Holloway","year":"2007","unstructured":"Holloway, S. Carbon dioxide capture and geological storage. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. A Math. Phys. Eng. Sci. 365(1853), 1095\u20131107. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1098\/rsta.2006.1953 (2007).","journal-title":"Philos. Trans. R. Soc. A Math. Phys. Eng. Sci."},{"issue":"4","key":"61950_CR6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"721","DOI":"10.1007\/s12205-011-0012-8","volume":"15","author":"J-S Kim","year":"2011","unstructured":"Kim, J.-S., Kwon, S.-K., Sanchez, M. & Cho, G.-C. Geological storage of high level nuclear waste. KSCE J. Civ. Eng. 15(4), 721\u2013737. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s12205-011-0012-8 (2011).","journal-title":"KSCE J. Civ. Eng."},{"key":"61950_CR7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"867","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rser.2014.05.032","volume":"37","author":"IS Moeck","year":"2014","unstructured":"Moeck, I. S. Catalog of geothermal play types based on geologic controls. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 37, 867\u2013882. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.rser.2014.05.032 (2014).","journal-title":"Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev."},{"issue":"1\u20132","key":"61950_CR8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"52","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tecto.2010.09.027","volume":"503","author":"Y Nara","year":"2011","unstructured":"Nara, Y., Meredith, P. G., Yoneda, T. & Kaneko, K. Influence of macro-fractures and micro-fractures on permeability and elastic wave velocities in basalt at elevated pressure. Tectonophysics 503(1\u20132), 52\u201359. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.tecto.2010.09.027 (2011).","journal-title":"Tectonophysics"},{"key":"61950_CR9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0148-9062(81)90006-1","author":"JB Walsh","year":"1981","unstructured":"Walsh, J. B. Effect of pore pressure and confining pressure on fracture permeability. Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci. Geomech. Abstr. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/0148-9062(81)90006-1 (1981).","journal-title":"Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci. Geomech. Abstr."},{"key":"61950_CR10","volume-title":"Introduction to the Physics of Rocks","author":"Y Gu\u00e9guen","year":"1994","unstructured":"Gu\u00e9guen, Y. & Palciauskas, V. Introduction to the Physics of Rocks (Princeton University Press, 1994)."},{"issue":"1\u20132","key":"61950_CR11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"60","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tecto.2010.09.028","volume":"503","author":"J Fortin","year":"2011","unstructured":"Fortin, J., Stanchits, S., Vinciguerra, S. & Gu\u00e9guen, Y. Influence of thermal and mechanical cracks on permeability and elastic wave velocities in a basalt from Mt. Etna volcano subjected to elevated pressure. Tectonophysics 503(1\u20132), 60\u201374. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.tecto.2010.09.028 (2011).","journal-title":"Tectonophysics"},{"issue":"B10","key":"61950_CR12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1029\/2003JB002942","volume":"109","author":"V Vajdova","year":"2004","unstructured":"Vajdova, V., Baud, P. & Wong, T. Permeability evolution during localized deformation in Bentheim sandstone. J. Geophys. Res. Solid Earth 109(B10), 2003JB002942. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1029\/2003JB002942 (2004).","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Solid Earth"},{"issue":"1","key":"61950_CR13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-023-42826-3","volume":"13","author":"M Fazio","year":"2023","unstructured":"Fazio, M., Chandler, M. R. & Sauter, M. Permeability evolution of Bentheim sandstone at simulated georeservoir conditions. Sci. Rep. 13(1), 16171. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s41598-023-42826-3 (2023).","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"61950_CR14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1306\/C1EA3C2B-16C9-11D7-8645000102C1865D","author":"RA Nelson","year":"1977","unstructured":"Nelson, R. A. & Handin, J. Experimental study of fracture permeability in porous rock. AAPG Bull. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1306\/C1EA3C2B-16C9-11D7-8645000102C1865D (1977).","journal-title":"AAPG Bull."},{"issue":"1\u20132","key":"61950_CR15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"48","DOI":"10.1111\/gfl.12089","volume":"15","author":"J Rutqvist","year":"2015","unstructured":"Rutqvist, J. Fractured rock stress-permeability relationships from in situ data and effects of temperature and chemical-mechanical couplings. Geofluids 15(1\u20132), 48\u201366. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/gfl.12089 (2015).","journal-title":"Geofluids"},{"issue":"1\u20132","key":"61950_CR16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"186","DOI":"10.1016\/j.epsl.2006.01.046","volume":"244","author":"H Yasuhara","year":"2006","unstructured":"Yasuhara, H. et al. Evolution of fracture permeability through fluid\u2013rock reaction under hydrothermal conditions. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 244(1\u20132), 186\u2013200. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.epsl.2006.01.046 (2006).","journal-title":"Earth Planet. Sci. Lett."},{"issue":"11","key":"61950_CR17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"443","DOI":"10.3390\/geosciences11110443","volume":"11","author":"C Cheng","year":"2021","unstructured":"Cheng, C. et al. Long-term evolution of fracture permeability in slate: An experimental study with implications for enhanced geothermal systems (EGS). Geosciences 11(11), 443. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/geosciences11110443 (2021).","journal-title":"Geosciences"},{"key":"61950_CR18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"615","DOI":"10.1016\/j.renene.2019.03.096","volume":"140","author":"Y Zhang","year":"2019","unstructured":"Zhang, Y. et al. An experimental investigation into the characteristics of hydraulic fracturing and fracture permeability after hydraulic fracturing in granite. Renew. Energy 140, 615\u2013624. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.renene.2019.03.096 (2019).","journal-title":"Renew. Energy"},{"issue":"9","key":"61950_CR19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"10675","DOI":"10.1007\/s00603-025-04667-6","volume":"58","author":"Q Deng","year":"2025","unstructured":"Deng, Q. et al. Permeability variations of a thermal-treated granite fracture under constant and stepwise cyclic loadings. Rock Mech. Rock Eng. 58(9), 10675\u201310693. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s00603-025-04667-6 (2025).","journal-title":"Rock Mech. Rock Eng."},{"key":"61950_CR20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"225","DOI":"10.1016\/0148-9062(79)91197-5","volume":"16","author":"RL Kranz","year":"1979","unstructured":"Kranz, R. L., Frankel, A. D., Engelder, T. & Scholz, C. H. The permeability of whole and jointed Barre granite. Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci. Geomech. Abstr. 16, 225\u2013234 (1979).","journal-title":"Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci. Geomech. Abstr."},{"issue":"12","key":"61950_CR21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"6057","DOI":"10.1007\/s00603-021-02603-y","volume":"54","author":"S-Q Yang","year":"2021","unstructured":"Yang, S.-Q., Yin, P.-F. & Xu, S.-B. Permeability evolution characteristics of intact and fractured shale specimens. Rock Mech. Rock Eng. 54(12), 6057\u20136076. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s00603-021-02603-y (2021).","journal-title":"Rock Mech. Rock Eng."},{"issue":"6","key":"61950_CR22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"5091","DOI":"10.1007\/s10064-021-02215-4","volume":"80","author":"P Bagherzadeh","year":"2021","unstructured":"Bagherzadeh, P., Goshtasbi, K., Kazemzadeh, E., Kashef, M. & Aloki Bakhtiari, H. Stress-dependence of the permeability, porosity, and compressibility in fractured porous media regarding fracturing condition. Bull. Eng. Geol. Environ. 80(6), 5091\u20135110. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s10064-021-02215-4 (2021).","journal-title":"Bull. Eng. Geol. Environ."},{"issue":"9","key":"61950_CR23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4001","DOI":"10.1007\/s00603-020-02163-7","volume":"53","author":"OO Blake","year":"2020","unstructured":"Blake, O. O. & Faulkner, D. R. Using velocities, density, and bulk modulus to predict the permeability evolution of microfractured rocks. Rock Mech. Rock Eng. 53(9), 4001\u20134013. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s00603-020-02163-7 (2020).","journal-title":"Rock Mech. Rock Eng."},{"issue":"1","key":"61950_CR24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-017-05460-4","volume":"7","author":"A Lamur","year":"2017","unstructured":"Lamur, A. et al. The permeability of fractured rocks in pressurised volcanic and geothermal systems. Sci. Rep. 7(1), 6173. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s41598-017-05460-4 (2017).","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"issue":"12","key":"61950_CR25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1098\/rsos.211270","volume":"8","author":"M Wang","year":"2021","unstructured":"Wang, M. & Zhang, D. Triaxial testing on water permeability evolution of fractured shale. R. Soc. Open Sci. 8(12), 211270. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1098\/rsos.211270 (2021).","journal-title":"R. Soc. Open Sci."},{"issue":"2","key":"61950_CR26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1439","DOI":"10.1007\/s11069-020-04361-6","volume":"105","author":"T Zhang","year":"2021","unstructured":"Zhang, T. et al. Experimental study on permeability response in fractured rock to the effect of hydro-mechanical coupling, fracture geometry, and component content. Nat. Hazards 105(2), 1439\u20131451. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s11069-020-04361-6 (2021).","journal-title":"Nat. Hazards"},{"key":"61950_CR27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s00603-025-04522-8","author":"Y Zhang","year":"2025","unstructured":"Zhang, Y. et al. Investigation of permeability characteristics of rock under confining pressure-fracture coupling conditions. Rock Mech. Rock Eng. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s00603-025-04522-8 (2025).","journal-title":"Rock Mech. Rock Eng."},{"issue":"1","key":"61950_CR28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1029\/2019GL083557","volume":"47","author":"P Shokouhi","year":"2020","unstructured":"Shokouhi, P. et al. Dynamic stressing of naturally fractured rocks: On the relation between transient changes in permeability and elastic wave velocity. Geophys. Res. Lett. 47(1), e2019GL083557. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1029\/2019GL083557 (2020).","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"issue":"12","key":"61950_CR29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1029\/2020JB020044","volume":"125","author":"AP Fraser\u2010Harris","year":"2020","unstructured":"Fraser\u2010Harris, A. P. et al. Experimental investigation of hydraulic fracturing and stress sensitivity of fracture permeability under changing polyaxial stress conditions. J. Geophys. Res. Solid Earth 125(12), e2020JB020044. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1029\/2020JB020044 (2020).","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Solid Earth"},{"key":"61950_CR30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/s0148-9062(98)00165-x","author":"IW Yeo","year":"1998","unstructured":"Yeo, I. W., Freitas, M. H. D. & Zimmerman, R. W. Effect of shear displacement on the aperture and permeability of a rock fracture. Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/s0148-9062(98)00165-x (1998).","journal-title":"Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci."},{"issue":"8","key":"61950_CR31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1029\/2019JB019240","volume":"125","author":"CE Renshaw","year":"2020","unstructured":"Renshaw, C. E., Schulson, E. M., Iliescu, D. & Murdza, A. Increased fractured rock permeability after percolation despite limited crack growth. J. Geophys. Res. Solid Earth 125(8), e2019JB019240. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1029\/2019JB019240 (2020).","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Solid Earth"},{"issue":"10","key":"61950_CR32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"5221","DOI":"10.1007\/s00603-020-02356-0","volume":"54","author":"C Kluge","year":"2021","unstructured":"Kluge, C., Bl\u00f6cher, G., Barnhoorn, A., Schmittbuhl, J. & Bruhn, D. Permeability evolution during shear zone initiation in low-porosity rocks. Rock Mech. Rock Eng. 54(10), 5221\u20135244. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s00603-020-02356-0 (2021).","journal-title":"Rock Mech. Rock Eng."},{"issue":"10","key":"61950_CR33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1029\/2020JB021469","volume":"126","author":"C Kluge","year":"2021","unstructured":"Kluge, C. et al. The stress\u2010memory effect of fracture stiffness during cyclic loading in low\u2010permeability sandstone. J. Geophys. Res. Solid Earth 126(10), e2020JB021469. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1029\/2020JB021469 (2021).","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Solid Earth"},{"issue":"1\u20132","key":"61950_CR34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.1111\/gfl.12107","volume":"15","author":"APS Selvadurai","year":"2015","unstructured":"Selvadurai, A. P. S. Normal stress-induced permeability hysteresis of a fracture in a granite cylinder. Geofluids 15(1\u20132), 37\u201347. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/gfl.12107 (2015).","journal-title":"Geofluids"},{"issue":"1763","key":"61950_CR35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3377","DOI":"10.1098\/rsta.1999.0499","volume":"357","author":"PR Sammonds","year":"1999","unstructured":"Sammonds, P. R. Understanding the fundamental physics governing the evolution and dynamics of the Earth\u2019s crust and ice sheets. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. Ser. A Math. Phys. Eng. Sci. 357(1763), 3377\u20133401 (1999).","journal-title":"Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. Ser. A Math. Phys. Eng. Sci."},{"key":"61950_CR36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.marpetgeo.2023.106411","volume":"155","author":"M Civitelli","year":"2023","unstructured":"Civitelli, M., Ravid\u00e0, D. C. G., Borrelli, M., Criniti, S. & Falsetta, E. Diagenesis and petrophysics of Miocene sandstones within southern Apennines foreland, Italy. Mar. Pet. Geol. 155, 106411. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.marpetgeo.2023.106411 (2023).","journal-title":"Mar. Pet. Geol."},{"key":"61950_CR37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"545","DOI":"10.1016\/j.earscirev.2018.12.014","volume":"192","author":"E Garzanti","year":"2019","unstructured":"Garzanti, E. Petrographic classification of sand and sandstone. Earth Sci. Rev. 192, 545\u2013563. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.earscirev.2018.12.014 (2019).","journal-title":"Earth Sci. Rev."},{"issue":"1","key":"61950_CR38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"103","DOI":"10.1306\/212F83B9-2B24-11D7-8648000102C1865D","volume":"54","author":"RV Ingersoll","year":"1984","unstructured":"Ingersoll, R. V. et al. The effect of grain size on detrital modes: A test of the Gazzi-Dickinson point-counting method. J. Sediment. Res. 54(1), 103\u2013116 (1984).","journal-title":"J. Sediment. Res."},{"key":"61950_CR39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sedgeo.2023.106408","volume":"452","author":"DCG Ravid\u00e0","year":"2023","unstructured":"Ravid\u00e0, D. C. G., Caracciolo, L., Heins, W. A. & Stollhofen, H. Towards an improved discrimination and correlation of Permian-Lower Triassic sediments in Central Europe: A chemostratigraphic approach. Sediment. Geol. 452, 106408. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.sedgeo.2023.106408 (2023).","journal-title":"Sediment. Geol."},{"issue":"2","key":"61950_CR40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"501","DOI":"10.1111\/sed.12913","volume":"69","author":"DCG Ravid\u00e0","year":"2022","unstructured":"Ravid\u00e0, D. C. G., Caracciolo, L., Henares, S., Jan\u00dfen, M. & Stollhofen, H. Drainage and environmental evolution across the Permo\u2013Triassic boundary in the south\u2010east Germanic Basin (north\u2010east Bavaria). Sedimentology 69(2), 501\u2013536. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/sed.12913 (2022).","journal-title":"Sedimentology"},{"key":"61950_CR41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9780511626487","volume-title":"Petrology of Sedimentary Rocks","author":"S Boggs Jr","year":"2009","unstructured":"Boggs, S. Jr. Petrology of Sedimentary Rocks (Cambridge University Press, 2009)."},{"key":"61950_CR42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4615-9974-6","volume-title":"Sand and Sandstone","author":"FJ Pettijohn","year":"1973","unstructured":"Pettijohn, F. J., Potter, P. E. & Siever, R. Sand and Sandstone (Springer US, 1973). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/978-1-4615-9974-6."},{"issue":"3","key":"61950_CR43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1361","DOI":"10.1007\/s10596-020-09956-3","volume":"24","author":"N Prajapati","year":"2020","unstructured":"Prajapati, N. et al. Brittle anisotropic fracture propagation in quartz sandstone: Insights from phase-field simulations. Comput. Geosci. 24(3), 1361\u20131376. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s10596-020-09956-3 (2020).","journal-title":"Comput. Geosci."},{"issue":"7\u20138","key":"61950_CR44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"890","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijrmms.2005.05.003","volume":"42","author":"PM Benson","year":"2005","unstructured":"Benson, P. M., Meredith, P. G., Platzman, E. S. & White, R. E. Pore fabric shape anisotropy in porous sandstones and its relation to elastic wave velocity and permeability anisotropy under hydrostatic pressure. Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci. 42(7\u20138), 890\u2013899. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.ijrmms.2005.05.003 (2005).","journal-title":"Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci."},{"issue":"10","key":"61950_CR45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"5269","DOI":"10.1007\/s00603-021-02580-2","volume":"54","author":"M Fazio","year":"2021","unstructured":"Fazio, M., Ibemesi, P., Benson, P., Bedoya-Gonz\u00e1lez, D. & Sauter, M. The role of rock matrix permeability in controlling hydraulic fracturing in sandstones. Rock Mech. Rock Eng. 54(10), 5269\u20135294. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s00603-021-02580-2 (2021).","journal-title":"Rock Mech. Rock Eng."},{"key":"61950_CR46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"701","DOI":"10.1016\/j.marpetgeo.2015.06.001","volume":"67","author":"AE Peksa","year":"2015","unstructured":"Peksa, A. E., Wolf, K.-H.A.A. & Zitha, P. L. J. Bentheimer sandstone revisited for experimental purposes. Mar. Pet. Geol. 67, 701\u2013719. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.marpetgeo.2015.06.001 (2015).","journal-title":"Mar. Pet. Geol."},{"issue":"12","key":"61950_CR47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"9950","DOI":"10.1002\/2017JB014645","volume":"122","author":"L Pimienta","year":"2017","unstructured":"Pimienta, L., Borgomano, J. V. M., Fortin, J. & Gu\u00e9guen, Y. Elastic dispersion and attenuation in fully saturated sandstones: Role of mineral content, porosity, and pressures. J. Geophys. Res. Solid Earth 122(12), 9950\u20139965. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/2017JB014645 (2017).","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Solid Earth"},{"key":"61950_CR48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2110\/jsr.21.127","author":"RL Folk","year":"1951","unstructured":"Folk, R. L. Stages of textural maturity in sedimentary rocks. J. Sediment. Res. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2110\/jsr.21.127 (1951).","journal-title":"J. Sediment. Res."},{"key":"61950_CR49","first-page":"555","volume-title":"Developments in Sedimentology","author":"K Bj\u00f8rlykke","year":"1988","unstructured":"Bj\u00f8rlykke, K. Sandstone diagenesis in relation to preservation, destruction and creation of porosity. In Developments in Sedimentology Vol. Vol. 41 555\u2013588 (Elsevier, 1988)."},{"issue":"3","key":"61950_CR50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"379","DOI":"10.1130\/0016-7606(1974)85<379:DADAOS>2.0.CO;2","volume":"85","author":"WE Galloway","year":"1974","unstructured":"Galloway, W. E. Deposition and diagenetic alteration of sandstone in northeast Pacific arc-related basins: Implications for graywacke genesis. Geol. Soc. Am. Bull. 85(3), 379\u2013390 (1974).","journal-title":"Geol. Soc. Am. Bull."},{"key":"61950_CR51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.marpetgeo.2023.106157","volume":"151","author":"S Niegel","year":"2023","unstructured":"Niegel, S. & Franz, M. Depositional and diagenetic controls on porosity evolution in sandstone reservoirs of the Stuttgart formation (North German basin). Mar. Pet. Geol. 151, 106157. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.marpetgeo.2023.106157 (2023).","journal-title":"Mar. Pet. Geol."},{"issue":"4","key":"61950_CR52","first-page":"541","volume":"172","author":"C Schmidt","year":"2021","unstructured":"Schmidt, C., Busch, B. & Hilgers, C. Lateral variations of detrital, authigenic and petrophysical properties in an outcrop analog of the fluvial Plattensandstein, Lower Triassic, S-Germany. J. Appl. Reg. Geol. Z. Gesellschaft Geowissensch. (ZDGG) 172(4), 541\u2013564 (2021).","journal-title":"J. Appl. Reg. Geol. Z. Gesellschaft Geowissensch. (ZDGG)"},{"key":"61950_CR53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apgeochem.2020.104852","volume":"124","author":"F Qin","year":"2021","unstructured":"Qin, F. & Beckingham, L. E. The impact of mineral reactive surface area variation on simulated mineral reactions and reaction rates. Appl. Geochem. 124, 104852. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.apgeochem.2020.104852 (2021).","journal-title":"Appl. Geochem."},{"issue":"6","key":"61950_CR54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"893","DOI":"10.1016\/S1365-1609(03)00071-6","volume":"40","author":"B Malama","year":"2003","unstructured":"Malama, B. & Kulatilake, P. H. S. W. Models for normal fracture deformation under compressive loading. Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci. 40(6), 893\u2013901. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/S1365-1609(03)00071-6 (2003).","journal-title":"Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci."},{"issue":"6","key":"61950_CR55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1016","DOI":"10.1029\/WR016i006p01016","volume":"16","author":"PA Witherspoon","year":"1980","unstructured":"Witherspoon, P. A., Wang, J. S. Y., Iwai, K. & Gale, J. E. Validity of cubic law for fluid flow in a deformable rock fracture. Water Resour. Res. 16(6), 1016\u20131024. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1029\/WR016i006p01016 (1980).","journal-title":"Water Resour. Res."}],"container-title":["Scientific Reports"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41598-026-61950-4","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41598-026-61950-4.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41598-026-61950-4.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,14]],"date-time":"2026-07-14T05:44:42Z","timestamp":1784007882000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41598-026-61950-4"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,14]]},"references-count":55,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,12]]}},"alternative-id":["61950"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s41598-026-61950-4","relation":{},"ISSN":["2045-2322"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2045-2322","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,14]]},"assertion":[{"value":"2 February 2026","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"8 July 2026","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"14 July 2026","order":3,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"order":1,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"The authors declare no competing interests.","order":2,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Competing interests"}}],"article-number":"22038"}}