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Here, we establish and characterize two novel high-efficiency SE pathways mediated by frog egg-like bodies (FELBs) and rhizoid tubers (RTBs) in\n                    <jats:italic>A. fistulosum<\/jats:italic>\n                    , and clarify the regulatory effects of NAA, 2,4-D and TDZ on morphogenesis and plant regeneration. Screening of multiple explants demonstrated that only root segments and stem tips could form translucent mucilaginous callus, while single 2,4-D treatment failed to induce callus at all tested concentrations. Under dark conditions, 10\u00a0mg\/L NAA maximized callus induction (94.233%) and FELB formation (87.833%) in root explants with significant dose-dependent effects. Phytocytohistological analysis confirmed that FELBs\/RTBs develop\n                    <jats:italic>via<\/jats:italic>\n                    three unique stages (pro-embryo, globular embryo, heart\/torpedo transitional embryo), distinct from the five canonical stages of typical somatic embryos. For RTB pathway, 5.0\u00a0mg\/L NAA induced the maximum rhizoid number (54.867 per explant), and subsequent treatment with 20.0\u00a0mg\/L TDZ under high light achieved optimal RTB production (51.333 per explant). Stage-specific BAP application yielded 100% FELB germination and over 90% RTB plantlet regeneration, with both regenerated seedlings exhibiting\u2009&gt;\u200990% acclimatization survival rates. This study first elucidates the ontogeny of FELB and RTB in monocot\n                    <jats:italic>A. fistulosum<\/jats:italic>\n                    . This is the first study characterizing FELB\/RTB developmental stages and ontogeny in a monocot, showing striking homology to eudicotyledons, confirming that FELB- and RTB-mediated somatic embryogenesis can also be achieved in monocots. These optimized systems provide robust technical support for high-frequency regeneration, genetic modification and virus-free seedling production of\n                    <jats:italic>Allium<\/jats:italic>\n                    crops.\n                  <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-026-63249-w","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,21]],"date-time":"2026-07-21T06:48:14Z","timestamp":1784616494000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Variable NAA concentrations regulate efficient somatic embryogenesis and plant regeneration mediated by FELBs and RTBs in Allium fistulosum"],"prefix":"10.1038","volume":"16","author":[{"given":"Yunxia","family":"Chang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kedong","family":"Xu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Danfeng","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Xingfu","family":"Xie","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Fangzhi","family":"Tao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Shihao","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Shengyin","family":"Ma","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Qi","family":"Cheng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yifan","family":"Chen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jinjing","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Liu","family":"Yao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jiaxin","family":"Wu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Fuhao","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jingyu","family":"Tao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yunru","family":"Xia","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Zhaomin","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Chengwei","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,21]]},"reference":[{"key":"63249_CR1","first-page":"1940","volume":"13","author":"Z Rahimi","year":"2026","unstructured":"Rahimi, Z. et al. 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