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The patent application entitled \u201cMethod for estimating pain score based on a patient\u2019s facial image\u201d (application number: 10-2025-0182865) was filed by Hallym University Industry-Academic Cooperation Foundation and Able AI Co., Ltd. Several authors of this manuscript are listed as inventors on this application. The patent covers aspects of the facial image-based pain quantification methodology described in this manuscript.","order":1,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Competing interests"}}],"article-number":"461"}}