{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,11,5]],"date-time":"2026-11-05T06:58:41Z","timestamp":1793861921001,"version":"4.6.1"},"reference-count":39,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,22]],"date-time":"2025-08-22T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1755820800000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-nd\/4.0"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,22]],"date-time":"2025-08-22T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1755820800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-nd\/4.0"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Commun Biol"],"DOI":"10.1038\/s42003-025-08706-4","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,22]],"date-time":"2025-08-22T12:29:33Z","timestamp":1755865773000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":5,"title":["Evidence for compositionality in fMRI visual representations via Brain Algebra"],"prefix":"10.1038","volume":"8","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3481-0832","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Matteo","family":"Ferrante","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3026-5221","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Tommaso","family":"Boccato","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1929-5833","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Nicola","family":"Toschi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3611-7716","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Rufin","family":"VanRullen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,22]]},"reference":[{"key":"8706_CR1","unstructured":"Mikolov, T., Yih, W.-t. & Zweig, G. Linguistic regularities in continuous space word representations. In Vanderwende, L., Daum\u00e9 III, H. & Kirchhoff, K. (eds.) Proceedings of the 2013 Conference of the North American Chapter of the Association for Computational Linguistics: Human Language Technologies, 746\u2013751 (Association for Computational Linguistics, Atlanta, Georgia, 2013). https:\/\/aclanthology.org\/N13-1090."},{"key":"8706_CR2","unstructured":"Lepori, M. A., Serre, T. & Pavlick, E. Break it down: Evidence for structural compositionality in neural networks https:\/\/arxiv.org\/abs\/2301.10884 (2023)."},{"key":"8706_CR3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"115","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-023-06668-3","volume":"623","author":"BM Lake","year":"2023","unstructured":"Lake, B. M. & Baroni, M. Human-like systematic generalization through a meta-learning neural network. Nature 623, 115\u2013121 (2023).","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"8706_CR4","unstructured":"Russin, J., McGrath, S. W., Williams, D. J. & Elber-Dorozko, L. From frege to chatgpt: Compositionality in language, cognition, and deep neural networks https:\/\/arxiv.org\/abs\/2405.15164 (2024)."},{"key":"8706_CR5","unstructured":"Shi, C. et al. Exploring compositional visual generation with latent classifier guidance https:\/\/arxiv.org\/abs\/2304.12536 (2023)."},{"key":"8706_CR6","unstructured":"Radford, A. et al. Learning transferable visual models from natural language supervision (2021)."},{"key":"8706_CR7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Goh, G. et al. Multimodal neurons in artificial neural networks. Distill https:\/\/distill.pub\/2021\/multimodal-neurons (2021).","DOI":"10.23915\/distill.00030"},{"key":"8706_CR8","unstructured":"Oota, S. R. et al. Deep Neural Networks and Brain Alignment: Brain Encoding and Decoding (Survey) http:\/\/arxiv.org\/abs\/2307.10246 (2023). ArXiv:2307.10246 [cs, q-bio]."},{"key":"8706_CR9","unstructured":"Scotti, P. S. et al. Reconstructing the mind\u2019s eye: fmri-to-image with contrastive learning and diffusion priors (2023)."},{"key":"8706_CR10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ozcelik, F. & VanRullen, R. Brain-diffuser: Natural scene reconstruction from fmri signals using generative latent diffusion (2023).","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-023-42891-8"},{"key":"8706_CR11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"134","DOI":"10.1038\/s42003-022-03036-1","volume":"5","author":"C Caucheteux","year":"2022","unstructured":"Caucheteux, C. & King, J. Brains and algorithms partially converge in natural language processing. Commun. Biol. 5, 134 (2022).","journal-title":"Commun. Biol."},{"key":"8706_CR12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"858","DOI":"10.1038\/s41593-023-01304-9","volume":"26","author":"J Tang","year":"2023","unstructured":"Tang, J. et al. Semantic reconstruction of continuous language from non-invasive brain recordings. Nat. Neurosci. 26, 858\u2013866 (2023).","journal-title":"Nat. Neurosci."},{"key":"8706_CR13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1210","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuron.2012.10.014","volume":"76","author":"A Huth","year":"2012","unstructured":"Huth, A., Nishimoto, S., Vu, A. & Gallant, J. A continuous semantic space describes the representation of thousands of object and action categories across the human brain. Neuron 76, 1210\u20131224 (2012).","journal-title":"Neuron"},{"key":"8706_CR14","unstructured":"Ferrante, M., Boccato, T. & Toschi, N. Semantic brain decoding: from fmri to conceptually similar image reconstruction of visual stimuli (2023)."},{"key":"8706_CR15","unstructured":"Ferrante, M., Boccato, T., Ozcelik, F., VanRullen, R. & Toschi, N. Multimodal decoding of human brain activity into images and text. In UniReps: the First Workshop on Unifying Representations in Neural Models https:\/\/openreview.net\/forum?id=rGCabZfV3d (2023)."},{"key":"8706_CR16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ferrante, M., Boccato, T. & Toschi, N. Through their eyes: multi-subject brain decoding with simple alignment techniques (2023).","DOI":"10.1162\/imag_a_00170"},{"key":"8706_CR17","unstructured":"Antonello, R., Vaidya, A. & Huth, A. G. Scaling laws for language encoding models in fmri (2023)."},{"key":"8706_CR18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"430","DOI":"10.1038\/s41562-022-01516-2","volume":"7","author":"C Caucheteux","year":"2023","unstructured":"Caucheteux, C., Gramfort, A. & King, J. Evidence of a predictive coding hierarchy in the human brain listening to speech. Nat. Hum. Behav. 7, 430\u2013441 (2023).","journal-title":"Nat. Hum. Behav."},{"key":"8706_CR19","unstructured":"Takagi, Y. & Nishimoto, S. High-resolution image reconstruction with latent diffusion models from human brain activity. bioRxiv https:\/\/www.biorxiv.org\/content\/early\/2023\/03\/11\/2022.11.18.517004 (2023)."},{"key":"8706_CR20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chen, Z., Qing, J., Xiang, T., Yue, W. L. & Zhou, J. H. Seeing beyond the brain: conditional diffusion model with sparse masked modeling for vision decoding (2022).","DOI":"10.1109\/CVPR52729.2023.02175"},{"key":"8706_CR21","unstructured":"Lin, S., Sprague, T. & Singh, A. K. Mind reader: Reconstructing complex images from brain activities (2022)."},{"key":"8706_CR22","unstructured":"Ferrante, M., Ciferri, M. & Toschi, N. R&b \u2013 rhythm and brain: cross-subject decoding of music from human brain activity https:\/\/arxiv.org\/abs\/2406.15537 (2024)."},{"key":"8706_CR23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"538","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neunet.2022.07.033","volume":"154","author":"B Choksi","year":"2022","unstructured":"Choksi, B., Mozafari, M., VanRullen, R. & Reddy, L. Multimodal neural networks better explain multivoxel patterns in the hippocampus. Neural Netw. 154, 538\u2013542 (2022).","journal-title":"Neural Netw."},{"key":"8706_CR24","first-page":"64","volume":"5","author":"R Antonello","year":"2024","unstructured":"Antonello, R. & Huth, A. Predictive coding or just feature discovery? an alternative account of why language models fit brain data. Neurobiol. Lang. 5, 64\u201379 (2024).","journal-title":"Neurobiol. Lang."},{"key":"8706_CR25","unstructured":"Gifford, A. T. et al. The algonauts project 2023 challenge: How the human brain makes sense of natural scenes (2023)."},{"key":"8706_CR26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"844","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tics.2024.06.011","volume":"28","author":"ST Piantadosi","year":"2024","unstructured":"Piantadosi, S. T. et al. Why concepts are (probably) vectors. Trends Cogn. Sci. 28, 844\u2013856 (2024).","journal-title":"Trends Cogn. Sci."},{"key":"8706_CR27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1162\/nol_a_00045","volume":"3","author":"M-H Wu","year":"2022","unstructured":"Wu, M.-H., Anderson, A. J., Jacobs, R. A. & Raizada, R. D. S. Analogy-related information can be accessed by simple addition and subtraction of fMRI activation patterns, without participants performing any analogy task. Neurobiol. Lang. 3, 1\u201317 (2022).","journal-title":"Neurobiol. Lang."},{"key":"8706_CR28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"116","DOI":"10.1038\/s41593-021-00962-x","volume":"25","author":"EJ Allen","year":"2022","unstructured":"Allen, E. J. et al. A massive 7t fmri dataset to bridge cognitive neuroscience and artificial intelligence. Nat. Neurosci. 25, 116\u2013126 (2022).","journal-title":"Nat. Neurosci."},{"key":"8706_CR29","unstructured":"Hern\u00e1ndez-C\u00e1mara, P., Vila-Tom\u00e1s, J., Malo, J. & Laparra, V. Measuring human-CLIP alignment at different abstraction levels. In ICLR 2024 Workshop on Representational Alignment https:\/\/openreview.net\/forum?id=xQyhHjLGmj (2024)."},{"key":"8706_CR30","unstructured":"Muttenthaler, L. et al. Aligning machine and human visual representations across abstraction levels https:\/\/arxiv.org\/abs\/2409.06509 (2024)."},{"key":"8706_CR31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"989","DOI":"10.1038\/nn1111","volume":"6","author":"DY Tsao","year":"2003","unstructured":"Tsao, D. Y., Freiwald, W. A., Knutsen, T. A., Mandeville, J. B. & Tootell, R. B. Faces and objects in macaque cerebral cortex. Nat. Neurosci. 6, 989\u2013995 (2003).","journal-title":"Nat. Neurosci."},{"key":"8706_CR32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"408","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conb.2006.06.004","volume":"16","author":"L Reddy","year":"2006","unstructured":"Reddy, L. & Kanwisher, N. Coding of visual objects in the ventral stream. Curr. Opin. Neurobiol. 16, 408\u2013414 (2006).","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Neurobiol."},{"key":"8706_CR33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"536","DOI":"10.1038\/nrn3747","volume":"15","author":"K Grill-Spector","year":"2014","unstructured":"Grill-Spector, K. & Weiner, K. The functional architecture of the ventral temporal cortex and its role in categorization. Nat. Rev. Neurosci. 15, 536\u2013548 (2014).","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Neurosci."},{"key":"8706_CR34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2425","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1063736","volume":"293","author":"JV Haxby","year":"2001","unstructured":"Haxby, J. V. et al. Distributed and overlapping representations of faces and objects in ventral temporal cortex. Science 293, 2425\u20132430 (2001).","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"8706_CR35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4302","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.17-11-04302.1997","volume":"17","author":"N Kanwisher","year":"1997","unstructured":"Kanwisher, N., McDermott, J. & Chun, M. M. The fusiform face area: a module in human extrastriate cortex specialized for face perception. J. Neurosci. 17, 4302\u20134311 (1997).","journal-title":"J. Neurosci."},{"key":"8706_CR36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e77599","DOI":"10.7554\/eLife.77599","volume":"11","author":"JS Prince","year":"2022","unstructured":"Prince, J. S. et al. Improving the accuracy of single-trial fmri response estimates using glmsingle. eLife 11, e77599 (2022).","journal-title":"eLife"},{"key":"8706_CR37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kay, K., Rokem, A., Winawer, J., Dougherty, R. & Wandell, B. Glmdenoise: a fast, automated technique for denoising task-based fmri data. Frontiers in Neuroscience 7, https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/journals\/neuroscience\/articles\/10.3389\/fnins.2013.00247 (2013).","DOI":"10.3389\/fnins.2013.00247"},{"key":"8706_CR38","unstructured":"Xu, X., Wang, Z., Zhang, E., Wang, K. & Shi, H. Versatile diffusion: Text, images and variations all in one diffusion model https:\/\/arxiv.org\/abs\/2211.08332 (2024)."},{"key":"8706_CR39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-023-42891-8","volume":"13","author":"F Ozcelik","year":"2023","unstructured":"Ozcelik, F. & VanRullen, R. Natural scene reconstruction from fmri signals using generative latent diffusion. Sci. Rep. 13, 15666 (2023).","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."}],"container-title":["Communications Biology"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s42003-025-08706-4.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s42003-025-08706-4","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s42003-025-08706-4.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,9]],"date-time":"2025-09-09T10:38:53Z","timestamp":1757414333000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s42003-025-08706-4"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,22]]},"references-count":39,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,12]]}},"alternative-id":["8706"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s42003-025-08706-4","relation":{},"ISSN":["2399-3642"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2399-3642","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,22]]},"assertion":[{"value":"13 January 2025","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"11 August 2025","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"22 August 2025","order":3,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"The authors declare no competing interests.","order":1,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Competing interests"}}],"article-number":"1263"}}