{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,18]],"date-time":"2026-08-18T12:37:36Z","timestamp":1787056656026,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":24,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,6]],"date-time":"2024-05-06T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1714953600000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,6]],"date-time":"2024-05-06T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1714953600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100005801","name":"Facebook","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["INB1116217"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["INB1116217"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100005801","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Commun Med"],"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title><jats:sec>\n                <jats:title>Background<\/jats:title>\n                <jats:p>Participatory surveillance of self-reported symptoms and vaccination status can be used to supplement traditional public health surveillance and provide insights into vaccine effectiveness and changes in the symptoms produced by an infectious disease. The University of Maryland COVID Trends and Impact Survey provides an example of participatory surveillance that leveraged Facebook\u2019s active user base to provide self-reported symptom and vaccination data in near real-time.<\/jats:p>\n              <\/jats:sec><jats:sec>\n                <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                <jats:p>Here, we develop a methodology for identifying changes in vaccine effectiveness and COVID-19 symptomatology using the University of Maryland COVID Trends and Impact Survey data from three middle-income countries (Guatemala, Mexico, and South Africa). We implement conditional logistic regression to develop estimates of vaccine effectiveness conditioned on the prevalence of various definitions of self-reported COVID-like illness in lieu of confirmed diagnostic test results.<\/jats:p>\n              <\/jats:sec><jats:sec>\n                <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                <jats:p>We highlight a reduction in vaccine effectiveness during Omicron-dominated waves of infections when compared to periods dominated by the Delta variant (median change across COVID-like illness definitions: \u22120.40, IQR[\u22120.45, \u22120.35]. Further, we identify a shift in COVID-19 symptomatology towards upper respiratory type symptoms (i.e., cough and sore throat) during Omicron periods of infections. Stratifying COVID-like illness by the National Institutes of Health\u2019s (NIH) description of mild and severe COVID-19 symptoms reveals a similar level of vaccine protection across different levels of COVID-19 severity during the Omicron period.<\/jats:p>\n              <\/jats:sec><jats:sec>\n                <jats:title>Conclusions<\/jats:title>\n                <jats:p>Participatory surveillance data alongside methodologies described in this study are particularly useful for resource-constrained settings where diagnostic testing results may be delayed or limited.<\/jats:p>\n              <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1038\/s43856-024-00508-9","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,6]],"date-time":"2024-05-06T18:02:41Z","timestamp":1715018561000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Vaccine effectiveness against emerging COVID-19 variants using digital health data"],"prefix":"10.1038","volume":"4","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8766-0129","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Tanner J.","family":"Varrelman","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Benjamin","family":"Rader","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Christopher","family":"Remmel","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Gaurav","family":"Tuli","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8927-3432","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Aimee R.","family":"Han","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5063-8470","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Christina M.","family":"Astley","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8568-5317","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"John S.","family":"Brownstein","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,6]]},"reference":[{"key":"508_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"494","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMc2119270","volume":"386","author":"S Collie","year":"2022","unstructured":"Collie, S., Champion, J., Moultrie, H., Bekker, L.-G. & Gray, G. Effectiveness of bnt162b2 vaccine against omicron variant in South Africa. N. Engl. J. Med. 386, 494\u2013496 (2022).","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"508_CR2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1532","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa2119451","volume":"386","author":"N Andrews","year":"2022","unstructured":"Andrews, N. et al. Covid-19 vaccine effectiveness against the omicron (b.1.1.529) variant. N. Engl. J. Med.\u00a0386, 1532\u20131546 (2022).","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"508_CR3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Menni, C. et al. Covid-19 vaccine waning and effectiveness and side-effects of boosters: a prospective community study from the Zoe Covid study. Lancet Infect. Dis. 22, 1002\u20131010 (2022).","DOI":"10.1016\/S1473-3099(22)00146-3"},{"key":"508_CR4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bitzegeio, J., Hemmers, L., Bartel, A. & Werber, D. Timely monitoring COVID-19 vaccine protection, Berlin, Germany, April 15 to December 15, 2021. Int. J. Public Health 67, 1604633 (2022).","DOI":"10.3389\/ijph.2022.1604633"},{"key":"508_CR5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"101230","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eclinm.2021.101230","volume":"43","author":"C Batista","year":"2022","unstructured":"Batista, C. et al. The silent and dangerous inequity around access to COVID-19 testing: a call to action. EClinicalMedicine 43, 101230 (2022).","journal-title":"EClinicalMedicine"},{"key":"508_CR6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"98","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijid.2020.09.009","volume":"101","author":"AB Aziz","year":"2020","unstructured":"Aziz, A. B. et al. Integrated control of COVID-19 in resource-poor countries. Int. J. Infect. Dis. 101, 98\u2013101 (2020).","journal-title":"Int. J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"508_CR7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Astley, C. M. et al. Global monitoring of the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic through online surveys sampled from the Facebook user base. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 118, https:\/\/www.pnas.org\/content\/118\/51\/e2111455118 (2021).","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.2111455118"},{"key":"508_CR8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1091","DOI":"10.1093\/ije\/dyab094","volume":"50","author":"IR Fulcher","year":"2021","unstructured":"Fulcher, I. R. et al. Syndromic surveillance using monthly aggregate health systems information data: methods with application to COVID-19 in Liberia. Int. J. Epidemiol. 50, 1091\u20131102 (2021).","journal-title":"Int. J. Epidemiol."},{"key":"508_CR9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1309","DOI":"10.1017\/S0950268811001804","volume":"140","author":"K Eames","year":"2012","unstructured":"Eames, K. et al. Rapid assessment of influenza vaccine effectiveness: analysis of an internet-based cohort. Epidemiol. Infect. 140, 1309\u20131315 (2012).","journal-title":"Epidemiol. 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Omicron-associated changes in severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (sars-cov-2) symptoms in the United Kingdom. Clin. Infect. Dis. 76, e133\u2013e141 (2022)."},{"key":"508_CR14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pe\u00f1a Rodr\u00edguez, M. et al. Prevalence of symptoms, comorbidities, and reinfections in individuals infected with wild-type sars-cov-2, delta, or omicron variants: a comparative study in western Mexico. Front. Public Health 11, 1149795 (2023).","DOI":"10.3389\/fpubh.2023.1149795"},{"key":"508_CR15","unstructured":"National Institutes of Health. Clinical Spectrum of SARS-COV-2 infection (accessed 12 June 2022). National Institutes of Health https:\/\/www.covid19treatmentguidelines.nih.gov\/overview\/clinical-spectrum\/ (2022)."},{"key":"508_CR16","unstructured":"Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Covid-19 After Vaccination: Possible Breakthrough Infection (accessed 12 June 2022). 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