{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,11,5]],"date-time":"2026-11-05T08:32:39Z","timestamp":1793867559096,"version":"4.6.1"},"reference-count":103,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,14]],"date-time":"2026-01-14T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1768348800000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,5]],"date-time":"2026-02-05T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1770249600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":22,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Commun Psychol"],"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>With the increasing accessibility of large language models to the public, questions arise about whether, and under what conditions, social-emotional interactions with artificial intelligence (AI) can lead to human-like relationship building. Across two double-blind randomised controlled studies with pre-registered analyses, 492 participants engaged in dyadic online interactions using a modified, text-based version of the \u2018Fast Friends Procedure\u2019 (a method designed to enable rapid relationship building), with pre-generated responses by either human partners or a minimally prompted large language model. When labelled as human, the AI outperformed human partners in establishing feelings of closeness during emotionally engaging \u2018deep-talk\u2019 interactions. This striking effect appears to stem from the AI\u2019s higher levels of self-disclosure, which in turn enhanced participants\u2019 perceptions of closeness. Labelling the partner as an AI reduced, but did not eliminate, relationship building, likely due to participants\u2019 lower motivation to engage in interactions with an AI, reflected in both shorter responses and reduced feelings of closeness. These findings highlight AI\u2019s potential to relieve overburdened social fields while underscoring the urgent need for ethical safeguards to prevent its misuse in fostering deceptive social connections.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1038\/s44271-025-00391-7","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,14]],"date-time":"2026-01-14T17:53:49Z","timestamp":1768413229000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":20,"title":["AI outperforms humans in establishing interpersonal closeness in emotionally engaging interactions, but only when labelled as human"],"prefix":"10.1038","volume":"4","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4937-3778","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Tobias","family":"Kleinert","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0009-1685-3829","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Marie","family":"Waldsch\u00fctz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0005-1893-2943","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Julian","family":"Blau","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Markus","family":"Heinrichs","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1063-1434","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Bastian","family":"Schiller","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,14]]},"reference":[{"key":"391_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Elsholz, E., Chamberlain, J. & Kruschwitz, U. Exploring language style in chatbots to increase perceived product value and user engagement. In Proc. 2019 Conference on Human Information Interaction and Retrieval, Association for Computing Machinery, 301\u2013305 (2019)","DOI":"10.1145\/3295750.3298956"},{"key":"391_CR2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Inzlicht, M., Cameron, C. D., D\u2019Cruz, J. & Bloom, P. In praise of empathic AI. Trends Cogn. Sci. 28, 89\u201391 (2024).","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tics.2023.12.003"},{"key":"391_CR3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41746-024-01422-z","volume":"8","author":"J Kambeitz","year":"2025","unstructured":"Kambeitz, J. & Meyer-Lindenberg, A. Modelling the impact of environmental and social determinants on mental health using generative agents. npj Digital Med. 8, 36 (2025).","journal-title":"npj Digital Med."},{"key":"391_CR4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"241","DOI":"10.1515\/nf-2019-0018","volume":"25","author":"P Kellmeyer","year":"2019","unstructured":"Kellmeyer, P. Artificial intelligence in basic and clinical neuroscience: opportunities and ethical challenges. Neuroforum 25, 241\u2013250 (2019).","journal-title":"Neuroforum"},{"key":"391_CR5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.artint.2021.103473","volume":"296","author":"M Langer","year":"2021","unstructured":"Langer, M. et al. What do we want from Explainable Artificial Intelligence (XAI)?\u2013A stakeholder perspective on XAI and a conceptual model guiding interdisciplinary XAI research. Artif. Intell. 296, 103473 (2021).","journal-title":"Artif. Intell."},{"key":"391_CR6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Skjuve, M., F\u00f8lstad, A. & Brandtzaeg, P. B. The user experience of ChatGPT: findings from a questionnaire study of early users. In Proc. 5th International Conference on Conversational User Interfaces, Association for Computing Machinery, 1\u201310 (2023).","DOI":"10.1145\/3571884.3597144"},{"key":"391_CR7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Yin, Y., Jia, N. & Wakslak, C. J. (2024). AI can help people feel heard, but an AI label diminishes this impact. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 121, e2319112121. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1073\/pnas.2319112121 (2023).","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.2319112121"},{"key":"391_CR8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"589","DOI":"10.1001\/jamainternmed.2023.1838","volume":"183","author":"JW Ayers","year":"2023","unstructured":"Ayers, J. W. et al. Comparing physician and artificial intelligence chatbot responses to patient questions posted to a public social media forum. JAMA Intern. Med. 183, 589\u2013596 (2023).","journal-title":"JAMA Intern. Med."},{"key":"391_CR9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lee, Y. K., Suh, J., Zhan, H., Li, J. J. & Ong, D. C. Large Language Models Produce Responses Perceived to be Empathic. In Proc. 2024 12th International Conference on Affective Computing and Intelligent Interaction (ACII), IEEE Computer Society, 63\u201371 (2024).","DOI":"10.1109\/ACII63134.2024.00012"},{"key":"391_CR10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4","DOI":"10.1038\/s44271-024-00182-6","volume":"3","author":"D Ovsyannikova","year":"2025","unstructured":"Ovsyannikova, D., de Mello, V. O. & Inzlicht, M. Third-party evaluators perceive AI as more compassionate than expert humans. Commun. Psychol. 3, 4 (2025).","journal-title":"Commun. Psychol."},{"key":"391_CR11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Vowels, L. M. Are chatbots the new relationship experts? Insights from three studies. Comput. Hum. Behav. 100077. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.chbah.2024.100077 (2024).","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chbah.2024.100077"},{"key":"391_CR12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4","DOI":"10.1038\/s44184-023-00047-6","volume":"3","author":"B Maples","year":"2024","unstructured":"Maples, B., Cerit, M., Vishwanath, A. & Pea, R. Loneliness and suicide mitigation for students using GPT3-enabled chatbots. npj Ment. Health Res. 3, 4 (2024).","journal-title":"npj Ment. Health Res."},{"key":"391_CR13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"He, Y. et al. Conversational agent interventions for mental health problems: Systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. J. Med. Internet Res. 25, e43862. https:\/\/www.jmir.org\/2023\/1\/e43862 (2023).","DOI":"10.2196\/43862"},{"key":"391_CR14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chb.2022.107600","volume":"140","author":"I Pentina","year":"2023","unstructured":"Pentina, I., Hancock, T. & Xie, T. Exploring relationship development with social chatbots: a mixed-method study of replika. Comput. Hum. Behav. 140, 107600 (2023).","journal-title":"Comput. Hum. Behav."},{"key":"391_CR15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijhcs.2022.102903","volume":"168","author":"M Skjuve","year":"2022","unstructured":"Skjuve, M., F\u00f8lstad, A., Fostervold, K. I. & Brandtzaeg, P. B. A longitudinal study of human\u2013chatbot relationships. Int. J. Hum.-Comput. Stud. 168, 102903 (2022).","journal-title":"Int. J. Hum.-Comput. Stud."},{"key":"391_CR16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.1111\/0022-4537.00153","volume":"56","author":"C Nass","year":"2000","unstructured":"Nass, C. & Moon, Y. Machines and mindlessness: social responses to computers. J. Soc. Issues 56, 81\u2013103 (2000).","journal-title":"J. Soc. Issues"},{"key":"391_CR17","unstructured":"Reeves, B. & Nass, C. The Media Equation: How People Treat Computers, Television, and New Media Like Real People. Vol. 10 19\u201336 (Cambridge University Press, 1996) https:\/\/psycnet.apa.org\/record\/1996-98923-000."},{"key":"391_CR18","first-page":"257","volume":"14","author":"I Altman","year":"1973","unstructured":"Altman, I. & Taylor, D. Communication in interpersonal relationships: social penetration theory. Interpers. Process. 14, 257\u2013277 (1973).","journal-title":"Interpers. Process."},{"key":"391_CR19","unstructured":"Blau, P. M. Social exchange. in International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences (ed Sills, D. L.) Vol. 7 452\u2013457 (Macmillan, 1968)."},{"key":"391_CR20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Carpenter, A. & Greene, K. Social penetration theory. in The International Encyclopedia of Interpersonal Communication 1\u20135. (John Wiley & Sons, 2016). https:\/\/sites.comminfo.rutgers.edu\/kgreene\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/28\/2018\/02\/ACGreene-SPT.pdf.","DOI":"10.1002\/9781118540190.wbeic160"},{"key":"391_CR21","unstructured":"Emerging India Analytics. The Battle Of The Minds: Why AI Will Never Fully Replicate Human Emotions. Medium. https:\/\/medium.com\/@analyticsemergingindia\/the-battle-of-the-minds-why-ai-will-never-fully-replicate-human-emotions-db08bdeea61a (2023)."},{"key":"391_CR22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Martinez-Miranda, J. & Aldea, A. Emotions in human and artificial intelligence. Comput. Hum. Behav. 21, 323\u2013341 (2005).","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chb.2004.02.010"},{"key":"391_CR23","unstructured":"Rothman, J. In the Age of A.I., What Makes People Unique? (The New Yorker, 2024). https:\/\/www.newyorker.com\/culture\/open-questions\/in-the-age-of-ai-what-makes-people-unique."},{"key":"391_CR24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1410462","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2024.1410462","volume":"15","author":"J Wu","year":"2024","unstructured":"Wu, J. Social and ethical impact of emotional AI advancement: the rise of pseudo-intimacy relationships and challenges in human interactions. Front. Psychol. 15, 1410462 (2024).","journal-title":"Front. Psychol."},{"key":"391_CR25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cognition.2018.08.003","volume":"181","author":"YE Bigman","year":"2018","unstructured":"Bigman, Y. E. & Gray, K. People are averse to machines making moral decisions. Cognition 181, 21\u201334 (2018).","journal-title":"Cognition"},{"key":"391_CR26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"809","DOI":"10.1177\/0022243719851788","volume":"56","author":"N Castelo","year":"2019","unstructured":"Castelo, N., Bos, M. W. & Lehmann, D. R. Task-dependent algorithm aversion. J. Mark. Res. 56, 809\u2013825 (2019).","journal-title":"J. Mark. Res."},{"key":"391_CR27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Elyoseph, Z. et al. Capacity of generative AI to interpret human emotions from visual and textual data: pilot evaluation study. JMIR Mental Health, 11, e54369. https:\/\/mental.jmir.org\/2024\/1\/e54369 (2024).","DOI":"10.2196\/54369"},{"key":"391_CR28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1353","DOI":"10.1007\/s00146-021-01230-z","volume":"37","author":"C Montemayor","year":"2022","unstructured":"Montemayor, C., Halpern, J. & Fairweather, A. In principle obstacles for empathic AI: why we can\u2019t replace human empathy in healthcare. AI Soc. 37, 1353\u20131359 (2022).","journal-title":"AI Soc."},{"key":"391_CR29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Broekens, J. et al. Fine-grained affective processing capabilities emerging from large language models. In Proc. 2023 11th International Conference on Affective Computing and Intelligent Interaction (ACII), 1\u20138. https:\/\/ieeexplore.ieee.org\/abstract\/document\/10388177\/ (2023).","DOI":"10.1109\/ACII59096.2023.10388177"},{"key":"391_CR30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tak, A. N. & Gratch, J. Is GPT a Computational Model of Emotion? In Proc. 2023 11th International Conference on Affective Computing and Intelligent Interaction (ACII), IEEE Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, 1\u20138 (2023).","DOI":"10.1109\/ACII59096.2023.10388119"},{"key":"391_CR31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"712","DOI":"10.1093\/joc\/jqy026","volume":"68","author":"A Ho","year":"2018","unstructured":"Ho, A., Hancock, J. & Miner, A. S. Psychological, relational, and emotional effects of self-disclosure after conversations with a chatbot. J. Commun. 68, 712\u2013733 (2018).","journal-title":"J. Commun."},{"key":"391_CR32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1845","DOI":"10.1038\/s41562-023-01734-2","volume":"7","author":"J De Freitas","year":"2023","unstructured":"De Freitas, J., Agarwal, S., Schmitt, B. & Haslam, N. Psychological factors underlying attitudes toward AI tools. Nat. Hum. Behav. 7, 1845\u20131854 (2023).","journal-title":"Nat. Hum. Behav."},{"key":"391_CR33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-024-53335-2","volume":"14","author":"J-P Stein","year":"2024","unstructured":"Stein, J.-P., Messingschlager, T., Gnambs, T., Hutmacher, F. & Appel, M. Attitudes towards AI: measurement and associations with personality. Sci. Rep. 14, 2909 (2024).","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"391_CR34","unstructured":"Brooks, D. Human Beings Are Soon Going to Be Eclipsed. International New York Times. https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2023\/07\/13\/opinion\/ai-chatgpt-consciousness-hofstadter.html (2023)."},{"key":"391_CR35","unstructured":"Modhvadia, R., Sippy, T., Field Reid, O. & Margetts, H. How Do People Feel About AI? Wave Two of a Nationally Representative Survey of UK Attitudes to AI Designed Through a Lens of Equity and Inclusion (Ada Lovelace Institute and The Alan Turing Institute, 2025) https:\/\/attitudestoai.uk\/."},{"key":"391_CR36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"363","DOI":"10.1177\/0146167297234003","volume":"23","author":"A Aron","year":"1997","unstructured":"Aron, A., Melinat, E., Aron, E. N., Vallone, R. D. & Bator, R. J. The experimental generation of interpersonal closeness: a procedure and some preliminary findings. Personal. Soc. Psychol. Bull. 23, 363\u2013377 (1997).","journal-title":"Personal. Soc. Psychol. Bull."},{"key":"391_CR37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-022-25189-z","volume":"12","author":"D T\u00f6nsing","year":"2022","unstructured":"T\u00f6nsing, D. et al. No evidence that gaze anxiety predicts gaze avoidance behavior during face-to-face social interaction. Sci. Rep. 12, 21332 (2022).","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"391_CR38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/s13229-025-00645-5","volume":"16","author":"D T\u00f6nsing","year":"2025","unstructured":"T\u00f6nsing, D. et al. Altered interactive dynamics of gaze behavior during face\u2011to\u2011face interaction in autistic individuals: a dual eye\u2011tracking study. Mol. Autism 16, 12 (2025).","journal-title":"Mol. Autism"},{"key":"391_CR39","unstructured":"Boyd, R. L., Ashokkumar, A., Seraj, S. & Pennebaker, J. W. The development and psychometric properties of LIWC-22. Vol. 10 (Austin, TX: University of Texas at Austin, 2022). https:\/\/www.liwc.app\/static\/documents\/LIWC-22%20Manual%20-%20Development%20and%20Psychometrics.pdf."},{"key":"391_CR40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"24","DOI":"10.1177\/0261927X09351676","volume":"29","author":"YR Tausczik","year":"2010","unstructured":"Tausczik, Y. R. & Pennebaker, J. W. The psychological meaning of words: LIWC and computerized text analysis methods. J. Lang. Soc. Psychol. 29, 24\u201354 (2010).","journal-title":"J. Lang. Soc. Psychol."},{"key":"391_CR41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"690","DOI":"10.1089\/cyber.2012.0399","volume":"16","author":"DE Callaghan","year":"2013","unstructured":"Callaghan, D. E., Graff, M. G. & Davies, J. Revealing all: misleading self-disclosure rates in laboratory-based online research. Cyberpsychol. Behav. Soc. Netw. 16, 690\u2013694 (2013).","journal-title":"Cyberpsychol. Behav. Soc. Netw."},{"key":"391_CR42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"516","DOI":"10.1177\/00139165211036991","volume":"54","author":"B Schiller","year":"2022","unstructured":"Schiller, B., T\u00f6nsing, D., Kleinert, T., B\u00f6hm, R. & Heinrichs, M. Effects of the COVID-19 pandemic nationwide lockdown on mental health, environmental concern, and prejudice against other social groups. Environ. Behav. 54, 516\u2013537 (2022).","journal-title":"Environ. Behav."},{"key":"391_CR43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1149","DOI":"10.3758\/BRM.41.4.1149","volume":"41","author":"F Faul","year":"2009","unstructured":"Faul, F., Erdfelder, E., Buchner, A. & Lang, A.-G. Statistical power analyses using G*Power 3.1: tests for correlation and regression analyses. Behav. Res. Methods 41, 1149\u20131160 (2009).","journal-title":"Behav. Res. Methods"},{"key":"391_CR44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"331","DOI":"10.1037\/1089-2680.7.4.331","volume":"7","author":"FD Richard","year":"2003","unstructured":"Richard, F. D., Bond, C. F. & Stokes-Zoota, J. J. One hundred years of social psychology quantitatively described. Rev. Gen. Psychol. 7, 331\u2013363 (2003).","journal-title":"Rev. Gen. Psychol."},{"key":"391_CR45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e2000797","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pbio.2000797","volume":"15","author":"D Szucs","year":"2017","unstructured":"Szucs, D. & Ioannidis, J. P. Empirical assessment of published effect sizes and power in the recent cognitive neuroscience and psychology literature. PLoS Biol. 15, e2000797 (2017).","journal-title":"PLoS Biol."},{"key":"391_CR46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"673","DOI":"10.1038\/nature03701","volume":"435","author":"M Kosfeld","year":"2005","unstructured":"Kosfeld, M., Heinrichs, M., Zak, P. J., Fischbacher, U. & Fehr, E. Oxytocin increases trust in humans. Nature 435, 673\u2013676 (2005).","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"391_CR47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"596","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-3514.63.4.596","volume":"63","author":"A Aron","year":"1992","unstructured":"Aron, A., Aron, E. N. & Smollan, D. Inclusion of other in the self scale and the structure of interpersonal closeness. J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 63, 596 (1992).","journal-title":"J. Personal. Soc. Psychol."},{"key":"391_CR48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"190","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chb.2013.10.029","volume":"31","author":"S Sprecher","year":"2014","unstructured":"Sprecher, S. Initial interactions online-text, online-audio, online-video, or face-to-face: effects of modality on liking, closeness, and other interpersonal outcomes. Comput. Hum. Behav. 31, 190\u2013197 (2014).","journal-title":"Comput. Hum. Behav."},{"key":"391_CR49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1452","DOI":"10.1177\/0265407521996055","volume":"38","author":"S Sprecher","year":"2021","unstructured":"Sprecher, S. Closeness and other affiliative outcomes generated from the Fast Friends procedure: a comparison with a small-talk task and unstructured self-disclosure and the moderating role of mode of communication. J. Soc. Personal. Relatsh. 38, 1452\u20131471 (2021).","journal-title":"J. Soc. Personal. Relatsh."},{"key":"391_CR50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e0129478","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0129478","volume":"10","author":"S G\u00e4chter","year":"2015","unstructured":"G\u00e4chter, S., Starmer, C. & Tufano, F. Measuring the closeness of relationships: a comprehensive evaluation of the\u2019inclusion of the other in the self\u2019scale. PLoS ONE 10, e0129478 (2015).","journal-title":"PLoS ONE"},{"key":"391_CR51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e0126809","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0126809","volume":"10","author":"DM Sidhu","year":"2015","unstructured":"Sidhu, D. M. & Pexman, P. M. What\u2019s in a name? Sound symbolism and gender in first names. PLoS ONE 10, e0126809 (2015).","journal-title":"PLoS ONE"},{"key":"391_CR52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.paid.2015.12.011","volume":"92","author":"A Vedel","year":"2016","unstructured":"Vedel, A. Big Five personality group differences across academic majors: a systematic review. Personal. Individ. Differ. 92, 1\u201310 (2016).","journal-title":"Personal. Individ. Differ."},{"key":"391_CR53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1431","DOI":"10.1177\/0146167216662869","volume":"42","author":"EJ Boothby","year":"2016","unstructured":"Boothby, E. J., Smith, L. K., Clark, M. S. & Bargh, J. A. Psychological distance moderates the amplification of shared experience. Personal. Soc. Psychol. Bull. 42, 1431\u20131444 (2016).","journal-title":"Personal. Soc. Psychol. Bull."},{"key":"391_CR54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"133","DOI":"10.1111\/j.2041-210x.2012.00261.x","volume":"4","author":"S Nakagawa","year":"2013","unstructured":"Nakagawa, S. & Schielzeth, H. A general and simple method for obtaining R 2 from generalized linear mixed-effects models. Methods Ecol. Evol. 4, 133\u2013142 (2013).","journal-title":"Methods Ecol. Evol."},{"key":"391_CR55","unstructured":"Field, A., Field, Z. & Miles, J. Multilevel linear models. in Discovering Statistics Using R 855\u2013909 (SAGE Publications, Inc., 2012)."},{"key":"391_CR56","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2576","DOI":"10.3758\/s13428-021-01587-5","volume":"53","author":"U Knief","year":"2021","unstructured":"Knief, U. & Forstmeier, W. Violating the normality assumption may be the lesser of two evils. Behav. Res. Methods 53, 2576\u20132590 (2021).","journal-title":"Behav. Res. Methods"},{"key":"391_CR57","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1141","DOI":"10.1111\/2041-210X.13434","volume":"11","author":"H Schielzeth","year":"2020","unstructured":"Schielzeth, H. et al. Robustness of linear mixed-effects models to violations of distributional assumptions. Methods Ecol. Evol. 11, 1141\u20131152 (2020).","journal-title":"Methods Ecol. Evol."},{"key":"391_CR58","first-page":"11","volume":"2","author":"SH Schwartz","year":"2012","unstructured":"Schwartz, S. H. An overview of the Schwartz theory of basic values. Online Read. Psychol. Cult. 2, 11 (2012).","journal-title":"Online Read. Psychol. Cult."},{"key":"391_CR59","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.techfore.2023.122634","volume":"193","author":"R Chaturvedi","year":"2023","unstructured":"Chaturvedi, R., Verma, S., Das, R. & Dwivedi, Y. K. Social companionship with artificial intelligence: recent trends and future avenues. Technol. Forecast. Soc. Change 193, 122634 (2023).","journal-title":"Technol. Forecast. Soc. Change"},{"key":"391_CR60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sorin, V. et al. Large language models and empathy: systematic review. J. Med. Internet Res. 26, e52597. https:\/\/www.jmir.org\/2024\/1\/e52597 (2024).","DOI":"10.2196\/52597"},{"key":"391_CR61","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"9599","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1206095109","volume":"109","author":"L Nummenmaa","year":"2012","unstructured":"Nummenmaa, L. et al. Emotions promote social interaction by synchronizing brain activity across individuals. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 109, 9599\u20139604 (2012).","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"391_CR62","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"67","DOI":"10.1016\/j.copsyc.2019.08.003","volume":"31","author":"NC Kr\u00e4mer","year":"2020","unstructured":"Kr\u00e4mer, N. C. & Sch\u00e4wel, J. Mastering the challenge of balancing self-disclosure and privacy in social media. Curr. Opin. Psychol. 31, 67\u201371 (2020).","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Psychol."},{"key":"391_CR63","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"351","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-0167.50.3.351","volume":"50","author":"DL Vogel","year":"2003","unstructured":"Vogel, D. L. & Wester, S. R. To seek help or not to seek help: the risks of self-disclosure. J. Counsel. Psychol. 50, 351 (2003).","journal-title":"J. Counsel. Psychol."},{"key":"391_CR64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Esmaeilzadeh, P., Mirzaei, T. & Dharanikota, S. Patients\u2019 perceptions toward human\u2013artificial intelligence interaction in health care: experimental study. J. Med. Internet Res. 23, e25856. https:\/\/www.jmir.org\/2021\/11\/e25856 (2021).","DOI":"10.2196\/25856"},{"key":"391_CR65","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41562-025-02247-w","author":"M Rubin","year":"2025","unstructured":"Rubin, M. et al. Comparing the value of perceived human versus AI-generated empathy. Nat. Hum. Behav. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s41562-025-02247-w (2025).","journal-title":"Nat. Hum. Behav."},{"key":"391_CR66","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Machia, L. V., Corral, D. & Jakubiak, B. K. Social need fulfillment model for human\u2013AI relationships. Technol. Mind Behav. 5, https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1037\/tmb0000141 (2024).","DOI":"10.1037\/tmb0000141"},{"key":"391_CR67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Baumeister, R. F. & Leary, M. R. The need to belong: desire for interpersonal attachments as a fundamental human motivation. Psychol. Bull. 117, 497\u2013529 (1995).","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-2909.117.3.497"},{"key":"391_CR68","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pmed.1000316","author":"J Holt-Lunstad","year":"2010","unstructured":"Holt-Lunstad, J., Smith, T. W. & Layton, J. B. Social relationships and mortality risk: a meta-analytic review. PLos Med. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pmed.1000316 (2010).","journal-title":"PLos Med."},{"key":"391_CR69","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"127","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00143739","volume":"9","author":"B Fischhoff","year":"1978","unstructured":"Fischhoff, B., Slovic, P., Lichtenstein, S., Read, S. & Combs, B. How safe is safe enough? A psychometric study of attitudes towards technological risks and benefits. Policy Sci. 9, 127\u2013152 (1978).","journal-title":"Policy Sci."},{"key":"391_CR70","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1232","DOI":"10.1126\/science.165.3899.1232","volume":"165","author":"C Starr","year":"1969","unstructured":"Starr, C. Social benefit versus technological risk: what is our society willing to pay for safety? Science 165, 1232\u20131238 (1969).","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"391_CR71","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"22","DOI":"10.1038\/s41514-024-00148-2","volume":"10","author":"CH Jones","year":"2024","unstructured":"Jones, C. H. & Dolsten, M. Healthcare on the brink: Navigating the challenges of an aging society in the United States. npj Aging 10, 22 (2024).","journal-title":"npj Aging"},{"key":"391_CR72","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1155\/2021\/1226841","volume":"2021","author":"E-Y Park","year":"2021","unstructured":"Park, E.-Y. Meta-analysis of factors associated with occupational therapist burnout. Occup. Ther. Int. 2021, 1\u201310 (2021).","journal-title":"Occup. Ther. Int."},{"key":"391_CR73","unstructured":"Phillips, L. A Closer Look at the Mental Health Provider Shortage. Www.Counseling.Org. https:\/\/www.counseling.org\/publications\/counseling-today-magazine\/article-archive\/article\/legacy\/a-closer-look-at-the-mental-health-provider-shortage (2023)."},{"key":"391_CR74","first-page":"223","volume":"3","author":"D Bzdok","year":"2018","unstructured":"Bzdok, D. & Meyer-Lindenberg, A. Machine learning for precision psychiatry: opportunities and challenges. Biol. Psychiatry. 3, 223\u2013230 (2018).","journal-title":"Biol. Psychiatry."},{"key":"391_CR75","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s11920-019-1094-0","volume":"21","author":"S Graham","year":"2019","unstructured":"Graham, S. et al. Artificial intelligence for mental health and mental illnesses: an overview. Curr. Psychiatry Rep. 21, 116 (2019).","journal-title":"Curr. Psychiatry Rep."},{"key":"391_CR76","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/capr.12759","volume":"25","author":"RK Maurya","year":"2025","unstructured":"Maurya, R. K., Montesinos, S., Bogomaz, M. & DeDiego, A. C. Assessing the use of ChatGPT as a psychoeducational tool for mental health practice. Counsel. Psychother. Res. 25, e12759 (2025).","journal-title":"Counsel. Psychother. Res."},{"key":"391_CR77","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1591","DOI":"10.2147\/IJGM.S408208","volume":"16","author":"A Wang","year":"2023","unstructured":"Wang, A. et al. The use of Chatbots in oncological care: a narrative review. Int. J. Gen. Med. 16, 1591\u20131602 (2023).","journal-title":"Int. J. Gen. Med."},{"key":"391_CR78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yang, Y., Wang, C., Xiang, X. & An, R. AI Applications to reduce loneliness among older adults: a systematic review of effectiveness and technologies. Healthcare, 13, 446. https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2227-9032\/13\/5\/446 (2025).","DOI":"10.3390\/healthcare13050446"},{"key":"391_CR79","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chb.2022.107273","volume":"133","author":"ME Aktan","year":"2022","unstructured":"Aktan, M. E., Turhan, Z. & Dolu, I. Attitudes and perspectives towards the preferences for artificial intelligence in psychotherapy. Comput. Hum. Behav. 133, 107273 (2022).","journal-title":"Comput. Hum. Behav."},{"key":"391_CR80","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chb.2023.107760","volume":"145","author":"B Hu","year":"2023","unstructured":"Hu, B., Mao, Y. & Kim, K. J. How social anxiety leads to problematic use of conversational AI: the roles of loneliness, rumination, and mind perception. Comput. Hum. Behav. 145, 107760 (2023).","journal-title":"Comput. Hum. Behav."},{"key":"391_CR81","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"86","DOI":"10.1002\/mar.21899","volume":"41","author":"HR Marriott","year":"2024","unstructured":"Marriott, H. R. & Pitardi, V. One is the loneliest number\u2026 Two can be as bad as one. The influence of AI Friendship Apps on users\u2019 well-being and addiction. Psychol. Mark. 41, 86\u2013101 (2024).","journal-title":"Psychol. Mark."},{"key":"391_CR82","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4","DOI":"10.1080\/15265161.2022.2048739","volume":"23","author":"J Sedlakova","year":"2023","unstructured":"Sedlakova, J. & Trachsel, M. Conversational artificial intelligence in psychotherapy: a new therapeutic tool or agent?  Am. J. Bioeth. 23, 4\u201313 (2023).","journal-title":"Am. J. Bioeth."},{"key":"391_CR83","unstructured":"Roose, K. Can A.I. Be Blamed for a Teen\u2019s Suicide? (The New York Times, 2024) https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2024\/10\/23\/technology\/characterai-lawsuit-teen-suicide.html"},{"key":"391_CR84","first-page":"338","volume":"327","author":"C Heizmann","year":"2025","unstructured":"Heizmann, C., Gleim, P. & Kellmeyer, P. Participatory co-creation of an AI-supported patient information system: a multi-method qualitative study. Stud. Health Technol. Inform. 327, 338\u2013342 (2025).","journal-title":"Stud. Health Technol. Inform."},{"key":"391_CR85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Huang, C., Zhang, Z., Mao, B. & Yao, X. An overview of artificial intelligence ethics. IEEE Trans. Artif. Intell., 4, 799\u2013819. https:\/\/ieeexplore.ieee.org\/document\/9844014 (2022).","DOI":"10.1109\/TAI.2022.3194503"},{"key":"391_CR86","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"598","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpurol.2023.05.018","volume":"19","author":"JK Kim","year":"2023","unstructured":"Kim, J. K., Chua, M., Rickard, M. & Lorenzo, A. ChatGPT and large language model (LLM) chatbots: The current state of acceptability and a proposal for guidelines on utilization in academic medicine. J. Pediatr. Urol. 19, 598\u2013604 (2023).","journal-title":"J. Pediatr. Urol."},{"key":"391_CR87","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/frai.2022.654930","volume":"5","author":"D Ognibene","year":"2023","unstructured":"Ognibene, D. et al. Challenging social media threats using collective well-being-aware recommendation algorithms and an educational virtual companion. Front. Artif. Intell. 5, 654930 (2023).","journal-title":"Front. Artif. Intell."},{"key":"391_CR88","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"98","DOI":"10.1080\/10447318.2022.2118244","volume":"40","author":"GRS Silva","year":"2024","unstructured":"Silva, G. R. S. & Canedo, E. D. Towards user-centric guidelines for chatbot conversational design. Int. J. Hum. Comput. Interact. 40, 98\u2013120 (2024).","journal-title":"Int. J. Hum. Comput. Interact."},{"key":"391_CR89","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eswa.2021.115742","volume":"186","author":"S Rao","year":"2021","unstructured":"Rao, S., Verma, A. K. & Bhatia, T. A review on social spam detection: challenges, open issues, and future directions. Expert Syst. Appl. 186, 115742 (2021).","journal-title":"Expert Syst. Appl."},{"key":"391_CR90","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1818","DOI":"10.1038\/s41562-023-01726-2","volume":"7","author":"S Feuerriegel","year":"2023","unstructured":"Feuerriegel, S. et al. Research can help to tackle AI-generated disinformation. Nat. Hum. Behav. 7, 1818\u20131821 (2023).","journal-title":"Nat. Hum. Behav."},{"key":"391_CR91","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"121","DOI":"10.1002\/asi.24898","volume":"76","author":"E Gumusel","year":"2025","unstructured":"Gumusel, E. A literature review of user privacy concerns in conversational chatbots: a social informatics approach: An Annual Review of Information Science and Technology (ARIST) paper. J. Assoc. Inf. Sci. Technol. 76, 121\u2013154 (2025).","journal-title":"J. Assoc. Inf. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"391_CR92","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"679","DOI":"10.1038\/s41562-021-01128-2","volume":"5","author":"N K\u00f6bis","year":"2021","unstructured":"K\u00f6bis, N., Bonnefon, J.-F. & Rahwan, I. Bad machines corrupt good morals. Nat. Hum. Behav. 5, 679\u2013685 (2021).","journal-title":"Nat. Hum. Behav."},{"key":"391_CR93","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"159","DOI":"10.1038\/551159a","volume":"551","author":"R Yuste","year":"2017","unstructured":"Yuste, R. et al. Four ethical priorities for neurotechnologies and AI. Nature 551, 159\u2013163 (2017).","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"391_CR94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Andr\u00e9, E. & Pelachaud, C. Interacting with embodied conversational agents. in Speech Technology (eds Chen, F. & Jokinen, K. (Hrsg.)) 123\u2013149 (Springer US., 2010).","DOI":"10.1007\/978-0-387-73819-2_8"},{"key":"391_CR95","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chb.2024.108539","volume":"165","author":"A Sundar","year":"2024","unstructured":"Sundar, A., Russell-Rose, T., Kruschwitz, U. & Machleit, K. The AI interface: designing for the ideal machine-human experience. Comput. Hum. Behav. 165, 108539 (2024).","journal-title":"Comput. Hum. Behav."},{"key":"391_CR96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mori, M., MacDorman, K. F. & Kageki, N. The uncanny valley [from the field]. IEEE Robot. Autom. Mag. 19, 98\u2013100. https:\/\/ieeexplore.ieee.org\/document\/6213238 (2012).","DOI":"10.1109\/MRA.2012.2192811"},{"key":"391_CR97","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.1038\/466029a","volume":"466","author":"J Henrich","year":"2010","unstructured":"Henrich, J., Heine, S. J. & Norenzayan, A. Most people are not WEIRD. Nature 466, 29\u201329 (2010).","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"391_CR98","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-020-69999-5","volume":"10","author":"B Schiller","year":"2020","unstructured":"Schiller, B., Kleinert, T., Teige-Mocigemba, S., Klauer, K. C. & Heinrichs, M. Temporal dynamics of resting EEG networks are associated with prosociality. Sci. Rep. 10, 13066 (2020).","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"391_CR99","unstructured":"Fiske, A. P. & Fiske, S. T. Social relationships in our species and cultures. in Handbook of Cultural Psychology 283\u2013306 (The Guildford Press, 2007)."},{"key":"391_CR100","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"437","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-psych-122216-011902","volume":"69","author":"J Holt-Lunstad","year":"2018","unstructured":"Holt-Lunstad, J. Why social relationships are important for physical health: a systems approach to understanding and modifying risk and protection. Annu. Rev. Psychol. 69, 437\u2013458 (2018).","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Psychol."},{"key":"391_CR101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hostinar, C. E. & Gunnar, M. R. Future directions in the study of social relationships as regulators of the HPA axis across development. J. Clin. Child Adolesc. Psychol. 42, 564\u2013575 (2013).","DOI":"10.1080\/15374416.2013.804387"},{"key":"391_CR102","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psyneuen.2022.105949","volume":"146","author":"GE L\u00f8seth","year":"2022","unstructured":"L\u00f8seth, G. E. et al. Stress recovery with social support: a dyadic stress and support task. Psychoneuroendocrinology 146, 105949 (2022).","journal-title":"Psychoneuroendocrinology"},{"key":"391_CR103","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1325","DOI":"10.1093\/scan\/nsx061","volume":"12","author":"FB Spengler","year":"2017","unstructured":"Spengler, F. B. et al. Oxytocin facilitates reciprocity in social communication. Soc. Cogn. Affect. Neurosci. 12, 1325\u20131333 (2017).","journal-title":"Soc. Cogn. Affect. Neurosci."}],"container-title":["Communications Psychology"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s44271-025-00391-7","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s44271-025-00391-7.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s44271-025-00391-7.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,5]],"date-time":"2026-02-05T14:04:22Z","timestamp":1770300262000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s44271-025-00391-7"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,14]]},"references-count":103,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,12]]}},"alternative-id":["391"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s44271-025-00391-7","relation":{"has-preprint":[{"id-type":"doi","id":"10.21203\/rs.3.rs-6803722\/v1","asserted-by":"object"}]},"ISSN":["2731-9121"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2731-9121","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,14]]},"assertion":[{"value":"17 June 2025","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"18 December 2025","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"14 January 2026","order":3,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"The authors declare no competing interests.","order":1,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Competing interests"}}],"article-number":"23"}}