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However, symptom triggers may vaguely resemble the initial traumatic event, differing on a variety of sensory and affective dimensions. We extended the fear-conditioning model to assess generalization of conditioned fear on fear processing neurocircuitry in PTSD. Military veterans (\n                    <jats:italic>n<\/jats:italic>\n                    =67) consisting of PTSD (\n                    <jats:italic>n<\/jats:italic>\n                    =32) and trauma-exposed comparison (\n                    <jats:italic>n<\/jats:italic>\n                    =35) groups underwent functional magnetic resonance imaging during fear conditioning to a low fear-expressing face while a neutral face was explicitly unreinforced. Stimuli that varied along a neutral-to-fearful continuum were presented before conditioning to assess baseline responses, and after conditioning to assess experience-dependent changes in neural activity. Compared with trauma-exposed controls, PTSD patients exhibited greater post-study memory distortion of the fear-conditioned stimulus toward the stimulus expressing the highest fear intensity. PTSD patients exhibited biased neural activation toward high-intensity stimuli in fusiform gyrus (\n                    <jats:italic>P<\/jats:italic>\n                    &lt;0.02), insula (\n                    <jats:italic>P<\/jats:italic>\n                    &lt;0.001), primary visual cortex (\n                    <jats:italic>P<\/jats:italic>\n                    &lt;0.05), locus coeruleus (\n                    <jats:italic>P<\/jats:italic>\n                    &lt;0.04), thalamus (\n                    <jats:italic>P<\/jats:italic>\n                    &lt;0.01), and at the trend level in inferior frontal gyrus (\n                    <jats:italic>P<\/jats:italic>\n                    =0.07). All regions except fusiform were moderated by childhood trauma. Amygdala\u2013calcarine (\n                    <jats:italic>P<\/jats:italic>\n                    =0.01) and amygdala\u2013thalamus (\n                    <jats:italic>P<\/jats:italic>\n                    =0.06) functional connectivity selectively increased in PTSD patients for high-intensity stimuli after conditioning. In contrast, amygdala\u2013ventromedial prefrontal cortex (\n                    <jats:italic>P<\/jats:italic>\n                    =0.04) connectivity selectively increased in trauma-exposed controls compared with PTSD patients for low-intensity stimuli after conditioning, representing safety learning. In summary, fear generalization in PTSD is biased toward stimuli with higher emotional intensity than the original conditioned-fear stimulus. Functional brain differences provide a putative neurobiological model for fear generalization whereby PTSD symptoms are triggered by threat cues that merely resemble the index trauma.\n                  <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1038\/tp.2015.196","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2015,12,15]],"date-time":"2015-12-15T09:42:34Z","timestamp":1450172554000},"page":"e700-e700","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":212,"title":["Fear learning circuitry is biased toward generalization of fear associations in posttraumatic stress disorder"],"prefix":"10.1038","volume":"5","author":[{"given":"R A","family":"Morey","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"J E","family":"Dunsmoor","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"C C","family":"Haswell","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"V M","family":"Brown","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"A","family":"Vora","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"J","family":"Weiner","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"D","family":"Stjepanovic","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"suffix":"III","given":"H R","family":"Wagner","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"name":"VA Mid-Atlantic MIRECC Workgroup","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mira","family":"Brancu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Christine E","family":"Marx","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jennifer C","family":"Naylor","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Elizabeth","family":"Van Voorhees","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Katherine H","family":"Taber","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jean C","family":"Beckham","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Patrick S","family":"Calhoun","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"John A","family":"Fairbank","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Steven T","family":"Szabo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"K S","family":"LaBar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2015,12,15]]},"reference":[{"key":"BFtp2015196_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"403","DOI":"10.1080\/09658210444000025","volume":"12","author":"A Ehlers","year":"2004","unstructured":"Ehlers A, Hackmann A, Michael T . 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