{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,29]],"date-time":"2026-04-29T19:14:01Z","timestamp":1777490041698,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":77,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,25]],"date-time":"2025-04-25T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1745539200000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-nd\/4.0"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,25]],"date-time":"2025-04-25T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1745539200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-nd\/4.0"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Nat Commun"],"DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-025-59023-7","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,25]],"date-time":"2025-04-25T14:22:27Z","timestamp":1745590947000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":11,"title":["Electrically-driven phase transition actuators to power soft robot designs"],"prefix":"10.1038","volume":"16","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5287-6990","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"D.","family":"Fonseca","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2177-5078","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"P.","family":"Neto","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,25]]},"reference":[{"key":"59023_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"235","DOI":"10.1038\/s41578-021-00389-7","volume":"7","author":"M Li","year":"2022","unstructured":"Li, M., Pal, A., Aghakhani, A., Pena-Francesch, A. & Sitti, M. Soft actuators for real-world applications. Nat. Rev. Mater. 7, 235\u2013249 (2022).","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Mater."},{"key":"59023_CR2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"107","DOI":"10.1109\/MRA.2016.2582726","volume":"23","author":"C Laschi","year":"2016","unstructured":"Laschi, C. & Mazzolai, B. Lessons from animals and plants: the symbiosis of morphological computation and soft robotics. IEEE Robot. Autom. Mag. 23, 107\u2013114 (2016).","journal-title":"IEEE Robot. Autom. Mag."},{"key":"59023_CR3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3449","DOI":"10.1126\/scirobotics.aar3449","volume":"3","author":"RK Katzschmann","year":"2018","unstructured":"Katzschmann, R. K., DelPreto, J., MacCurdy, R. & Rus, D. Exploration of underwater life with an acoustically controlled soft robotic fish. Sci. Robot. 3, 3449 (2018).","journal-title":"Sci. Robot."},{"key":"59023_CR4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"324","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-019-1737-7","volume":"575","author":"Y Chen","year":"2019","unstructured":"Chen, Y. et al. Controlled flight of a microrobot powered by soft artificial muscles. Nature 575, 324\u2013329 (2019).","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"59023_CR5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ren, Z., Hu, W., Dong, X. & Sitti, M. Multi-functional soft-bodied jellyfish-like swimming. Nat. Commun. 10, 2703 (2019).","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-019-10549-7"},{"key":"59023_CR6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"451","DOI":"10.1038\/nature19100","volume":"536","author":"M Wehner","year":"2016","unstructured":"Wehner, M. et al. An integrated design and fabrication strategy for entirely soft, autonomous robots. Nature 536, 451\u2013455 (2016).","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"59023_CR7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1900109","DOI":"10.1002\/aisy.201900109","volume":"1","author":"J Han","year":"2019","unstructured":"Han, J. et al. Untethered soft actuators by liquid\u2013vapor phase transition: remote and programmable actuation. Adv. Intell. Syst. 1, 1900109 (2019).","journal-title":"Adv. Intell. Syst."},{"key":"59023_CR8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"229","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-021-04029-6","volume":"599","author":"TJ Jones","year":"2021","unstructured":"Jones, T. J., Jambon-Puillet, E., Marthelot, J. & Brun, P.-T. Bubble casting soft robotics. Nature 599, 229\u2013233 (2021).","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"59023_CR9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"467","DOI":"10.1038\/nature14543","volume":"521","author":"D Rus","year":"2015","unstructured":"Rus, D. & Tolley, M. T. Design, fabrication and control of soft robots. Nature 521, 467\u2013475 (2015).","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"59023_CR10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Silva, A., Fonseca, D., Neto, D. M., Babcinschi, M. & Neto, P. Integrated design and fabrication of pneumatic soft robot actuators in a single casting step. Cyborg Bionic Syst. 5, 0137 (2024).","DOI":"10.34133\/cbsystems.0137"},{"key":"59023_CR11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"472","DOI":"10.1038\/nnano.2015.324","volume":"11","author":"S Lee","year":"2016","unstructured":"Lee, S. et al. A transparent bending-insensitive pressure sensor. Nat. Nanotechnol. 11, 472\u2013478 (2016).","journal-title":"Nat. Nanotechnol."},{"key":"59023_CR12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Truby, R. L., Chin, L., Zhang, A. & Rus, D. Fluidic innervation sensorizes structures from a single build material. Sci. Adv. 8, 32 (2022).","DOI":"10.1126\/sciadv.abq4385"},{"key":"59023_CR13","first-page":"1","volume":"13","author":"P Tan","year":"2022","unstructured":"Tan, P. et al. Solution-processable, soft, self-adhesive, and conductive polymer composites for soft electronics. Nat. Commun. 13, 1\u201312 (2022).","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"59023_CR14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tavakoli, M. et al. 3R electronics: scalable fabrication of resilient, repairable, and recyclable soft\u2010matter electronics. Adv. Mater. 34, e2203266 (2022).","DOI":"10.1002\/adma.202203266"},{"key":"59023_CR15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1126\/scirobotics.abg6049","volume":"6","author":"EW Hawkes","year":"2021","unstructured":"Hawkes, E. W., Majidi, C. & Tolley, M. T. Hard questions for soft robotics. Sci. Robot. 6, 1\u20136 (2021).","journal-title":"Sci. Robot."},{"key":"59023_CR16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"102","DOI":"10.1038\/s41928-018-0024-1","volume":"1","author":"SI Rich","year":"2018","unstructured":"Rich, S. I., Wood, R. J. & Majidi, C. Untethered soft robotics. Nat. Electron. 1, 102\u2013112 (2018).","journal-title":"Nat. Electron."},{"key":"59023_CR17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"13132","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1713450114","volume":"114","author":"S Li","year":"2017","unstructured":"Li, S., Vogt, D. M., Rus, D. & Wood, R. J. Fluid-driven origami-inspired artificial muscles. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. 114, 13132\u201313137 (2017).","journal-title":"Proc. Natl Acad. Sci."},{"key":"59023_CR18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1126\/scirobotics.adg3792","volume":"8","author":"Y Zhai","year":"2023","unstructured":"Zhai, Y. et al. Desktop fabrication of monolithic soft robotic devices with embedded fluidic control circuits. Sci. Robot. 8, 1\u201314 (2023).","journal-title":"Sci. Robot."},{"key":"59023_CR19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Higueras-Ruiz, D. R., Shafer, M. W. & Feigenbaum, H. P. Cavatappi artificial muscles from drawing, twisting, and coiling polymer tubes. Sci. Robot. 6, eabd5383 (2021).","DOI":"10.1126\/scirobotics.abd5383"},{"key":"59023_CR20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"525","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-29363-9_30","volume":"100","author":"CD Onal","year":"2017","unstructured":"Onal, C. D., Chen, X., Whitesides, G. M. & Rus, D. Soft mobile robots with on-board chemical pressure generation. Springe. Tracts Adv. Robot. 100, 525\u2013540 (2017).","journal-title":"Springe. Tracts Adv. Robot."},{"key":"59023_CR21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"161","DOI":"10.1126\/science.aab0129","volume":"349","author":"NW Bartlett","year":"2015","unstructured":"Bartlett, N. W. et al. A 3D-printed, functionally graded soft robot powered by combustion. Science 349, 161\u2013165 (2015).","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"59023_CR22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1126\/scirobotics.aba0015","volume":"5","author":"X Yang","year":"2020","unstructured":"Yang, X., Chang, L. & P\u00e9rez-Arancibia, N. O. An 88\u2009milligram insect-scale autonomous crawling robot driven by a catalytic artificial muscle. Sci. Robot. 5, 1\u201314 (2020).","journal-title":"Sci. Robot."},{"key":"59023_CR23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"887","DOI":"10.1126\/scirobotics.abi9704","volume":"6","author":"Q He","year":"2021","unstructured":"He, Q. et al. Electrospun liquid crystal elastomer microfiber actuator. Sci. Robot. 6, 887\u2013890 (2021).","journal-title":"Sci. Robot."},{"key":"59023_CR24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"22","DOI":"10.1126\/scirobotics.add2903","volume":"7","author":"A Pantula","year":"2022","unstructured":"Pantula, A. et al. Untethered unidirectionally crawling gels driven by asymmetry in contact forces. Sci. Robot. 7, 22\u201329 (2022).","journal-title":"Sci. Robot."},{"key":"59023_CR25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hu, Z., Zhang, Y., Jiang, H. & Lv, J. Bioinspired helical-artificial fibrous muscle structured tubular soft actuators. Sci. Adv. 9, eadh3350 (2023).","DOI":"10.1126\/sciadv.adh3350"},{"key":"59023_CR26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"274","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-018-0185-0","volume":"558","author":"Y Kim","year":"2018","unstructured":"Kim, Y., Yuk, H., Zhao, R., Chester, S. A. & Zhao, X. Printing ferromagnetic domains for untethered fast-transforming soft materials. Nature 558, 274\u2013279 (2018).","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"59023_CR27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1002\/admt.201800381","volume":"4","author":"M Boyvat","year":"2019","unstructured":"Boyvat, M., Vogt, D. M. & Wood, R. J. Ultrastrong and high\u2010stroke wireless soft actuators through liquid\u2013gas phase change. Adv. Mater. Technol. 4, 1\u20136 (2019).","journal-title":"Adv. Mater. Technol."},{"key":"59023_CR28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, C. et al. Fast and programmable locomotion of hydrogel-metal hybrids under light and magnetic fields. Sci. Robot. 5, eabb9822 (2020).","DOI":"10.1126\/scirobotics.abb9822"},{"key":"59023_CR29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Meder, F., Naselli, G. A., Sadeghi, A. & Mazzolai, B. Remotely light\u2010powered soft fluidic actuators based on plasmonic\u2010driven phase transitions in elastic constraint. Adv. Mater. 31, e1905671 (2019).","DOI":"10.1002\/adma.201905671"},{"key":"59023_CR30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zadan, M. et al. Liquid crystal elastomer with integrated soft thermoelectrics for shape memory actuation and energy harvesting. Adv. Mater. 34, 2200857 (2022).","DOI":"10.1002\/adma.202200857"},{"key":"59023_CR31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1002\/adma.202103806","volume":"33","author":"HE Fowler","year":"2021","unstructured":"Fowler, H. E., Rothemund, P., Keplinger, C. & White, T. J. Liquid crystal elastomers with enhanced directional actuation to electric fields. Adv. Mater. 33, 1\u20138 (2021).","journal-title":"Adv. Mater."},{"key":"59023_CR32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1126\/scirobotics.abg6994","volume":"6","author":"A Rajappan","year":"2021","unstructured":"Rajappan, A., Jumet, B. & Preston, D. J. Pneumatic soft robots take a step toward autonomy. Sci. Robot. 6, 1\u20133 (2021).","journal-title":"Sci. Robot."},{"key":"59023_CR33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Conrad, S. et al. 3D-printed digital pneumatic logic for the control of soft robotic actuators. Sci. Robot. 9, eadh4060 (2024).","DOI":"10.1126\/scirobotics.adh4060"},{"key":"59023_CR34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hubbard, J. D. et al. Fully 3D-printed soft robots with integrated fluidic circuitry. Sci. Adv. 7, eabe5257 (2021).","DOI":"10.1126\/sciadv.abe5257"},{"key":"59023_CR35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Drotman, D., Jadhav, S., Sharp, D., Chan, C. & Tolley, M. T. Electronics-free pneumatic circuits for controlling soft-legged robots. Sci. Robot. 6, eaay2627 (2021).","DOI":"10.1126\/scirobotics.aay2627"},{"key":"59023_CR36","first-page":"299","volume":"155","author":"G Kovacs","year":"2009","unstructured":"Kovacs, G., D\u00fcring, L., Michel, S. & Terrasi, G. Stacked dielectric elastomer actuator for tensile force transmission. Sensors Actuators. A Phys. 155, 299\u2013307 (2009).","journal-title":"A Phys."},{"key":"59023_CR37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"61","DOI":"10.1126\/science.aao6139","volume":"359","author":"E Acome","year":"2018","unstructured":"Acome, E. et al. Hydraulically amplified self-healing electrostatic actuators with muscle-like performance. Science 359, 61\u201365 (2018).","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"59023_CR38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1126\/scirobotics.aaz5796","volume":"6","author":"ID S\u00eerbu","year":"2021","unstructured":"S\u00eerbu, I. D. et al. Electrostatic bellow muscle actuators and energy harvesters that stack up. Sci. Robot. 6, 1\u201312 (2021).","journal-title":"Sci. Robot."},{"key":"59023_CR39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wu, Y. et al. Insect-scale fast moving and ultrarobust soft robot. Sci. Robot. 4, 32 (2019).","DOI":"10.1126\/scirobotics.aax1594"},{"key":"59023_CR40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1002\/admt.201900716","volume":"5","author":"X Gao","year":"2020","unstructured":"Gao, X. et al. Piezoelectric actuators and motors: materials, designs, and applications. Adv. Mater. Technol. 5, 1\u201326 (2020).","journal-title":"Adv. Mater. Technol."},{"key":"59023_CR41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"101891","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eml.2022.101891","volume":"56","author":"Y Xu","year":"2022","unstructured":"Xu, Y., Wang, T. & Wang, Z. Electrically actuated soft actuator integrated with an electrochemical reactor. Extrem. Mech. Lett. 56, 101891 (2022).","journal-title":"Extrem. Mech. Lett."},{"key":"59023_CR42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"7658","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1921132117","volume":"117","author":"W Johannisson","year":"2020","unstructured":"Johannisson, W., Harnden, R., Zenkert, D. & Lindbergh, G. Shape-morphing carbon fiber composite using electrochemical actuation. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 117, 7658\u20137664 (2020).","journal-title":"Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"59023_CR43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"205","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-019-1538-z","volume":"573","author":"X Xia","year":"2019","unstructured":"Xia, X. et al. Electrochemically reconfigurable architected materials. Nature 573, 205\u2013213 (2019).","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"59023_CR44","first-page":"1","volume":"34","author":"S Chen","year":"2022","unstructured":"Chen, S. et al. Molecular\u2010level methylcellulose\/MXene hybrids with greatly enhanced electrochemical actuation. Adv. Mater. 34, 1\u201313 (2022).","journal-title":"Adv. Mater."},{"key":"59023_CR45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1126\/scirobotics.abe6663","volume":"6","author":"Q Liu","year":"2021","unstructured":"Liu, Q. et al. Micrometer-sized electrically programmable shape-memory actuators for low-power microrobotics. Sci. Robot. 6, 1\u20139 (2021).","journal-title":"Sci. Robot."},{"key":"59023_CR46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1002\/adma.202103062","volume":"33","author":"J Shu","year":"2021","unstructured":"Shu, J. et al. A Liquid Metal Artificial Muscle. Adv. Mater. 33, 1\u201310 (2021).","journal-title":"Adv. Mater."},{"key":"59023_CR47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1921","DOI":"10.1039\/D0SM01851A","volume":"17","author":"J Liao","year":"2021","unstructured":"Liao, J. & Majidi, C. Soft actuators by electrochemical oxidation of liquid metal surfaces. Soft Matter 17, 1921\u20131928 (2021).","journal-title":"Soft Matter"},{"key":"59023_CR48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chen, S., Tan, M. W. M., Gong, X. & Lee, P. S. Low\u2010voltage soft actuators for interactive human\u2013machine interfaces. Adv. Intell. Syst. 4, 2100075 (2022).","DOI":"10.1002\/aisy.202100075"},{"key":"59023_CR49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"213","DOI":"10.1089\/soro.2019.0175","volume":"8","author":"J Sun","year":"2021","unstructured":"Sun, J., Tighe, B., Liu, Y. & Zhao, J. Twisted-and-coiled actuators with free strokes enable soft robots with programmable motions. Soft Robot. 8, 213\u2013225 (2021).","journal-title":"Soft Robot."},{"key":"59023_CR50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1126\/sciadv.aax5746","volume":"5","author":"Q He","year":"2019","unstructured":"He, Q. et al. Electrically controlled liquid crystal elastomer\u2013based soft tubular actuator with multimodal actuation. Sci. Adv. 5, 1\u20138 (2019).","journal-title":"Sci. Adv."},{"key":"59023_CR51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2118","DOI":"10.1109\/LRA.2023.3246394","volume":"8","author":"B Kang","year":"2023","unstructured":"Kang, B., Lim, S., Kim, H. & Wang, W. D. Electrically driven robotic pistons exploiting liquid-vapor phase transition for underwater applications. IEEE Robot. Autom. Lett. 8, 2118\u20132125 (2023).","journal-title":"IEEE Robot. Autom. Lett."},{"key":"59023_CR52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"225","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-matsci-080921-102916","volume":"53","author":"AL Evenchik","year":"2023","unstructured":"Evenchik, A. L., Kane, A. Q., Oh, E. B. & Truby, R. L. Electrically controllable materials for soft, bioinspired machines. Annu. Rev. Mater. Res. 53, 225\u2013251 (2023).","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Mater. Res."},{"key":"59023_CR53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1126\/scirobotics.aaz4239","volume":"5","author":"SM Mirvakili","year":"2020","unstructured":"Mirvakili, S. M., Sim, D., Hunter, I. W. & Langer, R. Actuation of untethered pneumatic artificial muscles and soft robots using magnetically induced liquid-to-gas phase transitions. Sci. Robot. 5, 1\u201310 (2020).","journal-title":"Sci. Robot."},{"key":"59023_CR54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bilodeau, R. A., Miriyev, A., Lipson, H. & Kramer-Bottiglio, R. All-soft material system for strong soft actuators. In 2018 IEEE International Conference on Soft Robotics (RoboSoft) 288\u2013294 (IEEE, 2018).","DOI":"10.1109\/ROBOSOFT.2018.8404934"},{"key":"59023_CR55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3915","DOI":"10.1109\/LRA.2020.2983681","volume":"5","author":"K Narumi","year":"2020","unstructured":"Narumi, K. et al. Liquid pouch motors: printable planar actuators driven by liquid-to-gas phase change for shape-changing interfaces. IEEE Robot. Autom. Lett. 5, 3915\u20133922 (2020).","journal-title":"IEEE Robot. Autom. Lett."},{"key":"59023_CR56","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-017-00685-3","volume":"8","author":"A Miriyev","year":"2017","unstructured":"Miriyev, A., Stack, K. & Lipson, H. Soft material for soft actuators. Nat. Commun. 8, 596 (2017).","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"59023_CR57","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"232","DOI":"10.1016\/j.matdes.2018.02.057","volume":"145","author":"A Miriyev","year":"2018","unstructured":"Miriyev, A., Caires, G. & Lipson, H. Functional properties of silicone\/ethanol soft-actuator composites. Mater. Des. 145, 232\u2013242 (2018).","journal-title":"Mater. Des."},{"key":"59023_CR58","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"119297","DOI":"10.1016\/j.applthermaleng.2022.119297","volume":"218","author":"B Zhang","year":"2023","unstructured":"Zhang, B., Gong, S., Dong, S., Xiong, Z. & Guo, Q. Experimental investigation on vibration characteristics of subcooled and saturated pool boiling. Appl. Therm. Eng. 218, 119297 (2023).","journal-title":"Appl. Therm. Eng."},{"key":"59023_CR59","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"896","DOI":"10.1080\/01457632.2021.1919971","volume":"43","author":"B Pattanayak","year":"2022","unstructured":"Pattanayak, B. & Kothadia, H. Experimental study of critical heat flux during pool boiling on mini tubes: effect of subcooling, orientation, and dimensions. Heat. Transf. Eng. 43, 896\u2013921 (2022).","journal-title":"Heat. Transf. Eng."},{"key":"59023_CR60","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.3389\/frobt.2021.672934","volume":"8","author":"G Decroly","year":"2021","unstructured":"Decroly, G. et al. Optimization of phase-change material\u2013elastomer composite and integration in kirigami-inspired voxel-based actuators. Front. Robot. AI 8, 1\u201312 (2021).","journal-title":"Front. Robot. AI"},{"key":"59023_CR61","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2163","DOI":"10.1002\/adfm.201303288","volume":"24","author":"B Mosadegh","year":"2014","unstructured":"Mosadegh, B. et al. Pneumatic networks for soft robotics that actuate rapidly. Adv. Funct. Mater. 24, 2163\u20132170 (2014).","journal-title":"Adv. Funct. Mater."},{"key":"59023_CR62","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"16092","DOI":"10.1038\/natrevmats.2016.92","volume":"2","author":"HJ Cho","year":"2016","unstructured":"Cho, H. J., Preston, D. J., Zhu, Y. & Wang, E. N. Nanoengineered materials for liquid\u2013vapour phase-change heat transfer. Nat. Rev. Mater. 2, 16092 (2016).","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Mater."},{"key":"59023_CR63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Garrad, M., Soter, G., Conn, A. T., Hauser, H. & Rossiter, J. Driving soft robots with low-boiling point fluids. in 2019 2nd IEEE International Conference on Soft Robotics (RoboSoft) 74\u201379 (IEEE, 2019).","DOI":"10.1109\/ROBOSOFT.2019.8722812"},{"key":"59023_CR64","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"SIIL08","DOI":"10.35848\/1347-4065\/ab85ae","volume":"59","author":"T Noguchi","year":"2020","unstructured":"Noguchi, T. & Tsumori, F. Soft actuator with large volumetric change using vapor\u2013liquid phase transition. Jpn. J. Appl. Phys. 59, SIIL08 (2020).","journal-title":"Jpn. J. Appl. Phys."},{"key":"59023_CR65","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"62","DOI":"10.3390\/act9030062","volume":"9","author":"B Xia","year":"2020","unstructured":"Xia, B. et al. Improving the actuation speed and multi-cyclic actuation characteristics of silicone\/ethanol soft actuators. Actuators 9, 62 (2020).","journal-title":"Actuators"},{"key":"59023_CR66","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"556","DOI":"10.1557\/mrc.2018.30","volume":"8","author":"A Miriyev","year":"2018","unstructured":"Miriyev, A., Trujillo, C., Caires, G. & Lipson, H. Rejuvenation of soft material-actuator. MRS Commun. 8, 556\u2013561 (2018).","journal-title":"MRS Commun."},{"key":"59023_CR67","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1352","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2017.09.134","volume":"117","author":"G Liang","year":"2018","unstructured":"Liang, G. & Mudawar, I. Pool boiling critical heat flux (CHF)\u2014part 1: review of mechanisms, models, and correlations. Int. J. Heat. Mass Transf. 117, 1352\u20131367 (2018).","journal-title":"Int. J. Heat. Mass Transf."},{"key":"59023_CR68","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"90","DOI":"10.1109\/70.481753","volume":"12","author":"CP Chou","year":"1996","unstructured":"Chou, C. P., Hannaford, B., Ching-Ping, C. & Hannaford, B. Measurement and modeling of McKibben pneumatic artificial muscles. IEEE Trans. Robot. Autom. 12, 90\u2013102 (1996).","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Robot. Autom."},{"key":"59023_CR69","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"15","DOI":"10.1109\/37.833638","volume":"20","author":"B Tondu","year":"2000","unstructured":"Tondu, B. & Lopez, P. Modeling and control of McKibben artificial muscle robot actuators. IEEE Control Syst. 20, 15\u201338 (2000).","journal-title":"IEEE Control Syst."},{"key":"59023_CR70","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"542","DOI":"10.1109\/LRA.2021.3130627","volume":"7","author":"D Bruder","year":"2022","unstructured":"Bruder, D. & Wood, R. J. The chain-link actuator: exploiting the bending stiffness of mckibben artificial muscles to achieve larger contraction ratios. IEEE Robot. Autom. Lett. 7, 542\u2013548 (2022).","journal-title":"IEEE Robot. Autom. Lett."},{"key":"59023_CR71","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1604977","DOI":"10.1002\/adma.201604977","volume":"29","author":"B Gorissen","year":"2017","unstructured":"Gorissen, B. et al. Elastic inflatable actuators for soft robotic applications. Adv. Mater. 29, 1604977 (2017).","journal-title":"Adv. Mater."},{"key":"59023_CR72","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"70","DOI":"10.5739\/jfpsij.11.70","volume":"11","author":"K Higashijima","year":"2019","unstructured":"Higashijima, K., Kato, T., Sakuragi, K., Sato, T. & Ono, M. Development of manipulator using a gas\u2013liquid phase-change actuator. JFPS Int. J. Fluid Power Syst. 11, 70\u201374 (2019).","journal-title":"JFPS Int. J. Fluid Power Syst."},{"key":"59023_CR73","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"398","DOI":"10.1021\/ie50400a004","volume":"35","author":"KM Watson","year":"1943","unstructured":"Watson, K. M. Thermodynamics of the liquid state: generalized prediction of properties. Ind. Eng. Chem. 35, 398\u2013406 (1943).","journal-title":"Ind. Eng. Chem."},{"key":"59023_CR74","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1527","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0450(1981)020<1527:NEFCVP>2.0.CO;2","volume":"20","author":"AL Buck","year":"1981","unstructured":"Buck, A. L. New equations for computing vapor pressure and enhancement factor. J. Appl. Meteorol. Climatol. 20, 1527\u20131532 (1981).","journal-title":"J. Appl. Meteorol. Climatol."},{"key":"59023_CR75","unstructured":"Coker, A. K. Ludwig\u2019s Applied Process Design for Chemical and Petrochemical Plants 4th edn, Vol. 1257 (Gulf Professional Publishing, 2010)."},{"key":"59023_CR76","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"868","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1246906","volume":"343","author":"CS Haines","year":"2014","unstructured":"Haines, C. S. et al. Artificial muscles from fishing line and sewing thread. Sci 343, 868\u2013872 (2014).","journal-title":"Sci"},{"key":"59023_CR77","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2476","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1815053116","volume":"116","author":"M Duduta","year":"2019","unstructured":"Duduta, M., Hajiesmaili, E., Zhao, H., Wood, R. J. & Clarke, D. R. Realizing the potential of dielectric elastomer artificial muscles. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 116, 2476\u20132481 (2019).","journal-title":"Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA"}],"container-title":["Nature Communications"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41467-025-59023-7.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41467-025-59023-7","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41467-025-59023-7.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,25]],"date-time":"2025-04-25T15:03:20Z","timestamp":1745593400000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41467-025-59023-7"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,25]]},"references-count":77,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,12]]}},"alternative-id":["59023"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s41467-025-59023-7","relation":{},"ISSN":["2041-1723"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2041-1723","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,25]]},"assertion":[{"value":"17 October 2024","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"3 April 2025","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"25 April 2025","order":3,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"The authors declare no competing interests.","order":1,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Competing interests"}}],"article-number":"3920"}}