{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,24]],"date-time":"2026-08-24T15:32:48Z","timestamp":1787585568561,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":76,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,24]],"date-time":"2026-08-24T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1787529600000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.springernature.com\/gp\/researchers\/text-and-data-mining"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,24]],"date-time":"2026-08-24T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1787529600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.springernature.com\/gp\/researchers\/text-and-data-mining"}],"funder":[{"name":"Harvard GRID Accelerator, Harvard Dean's Competitive Fund for Promising Scholarship"},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000001","name":"National Science Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["DGE-2140743"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["DGE-2140743"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000001","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Amazon Greater Boston Tech Initiative"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Nat. Biomed. Eng"],"DOI":"10.1038\/s41551-026-01772-x","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,24]],"date-time":"2026-08-24T15:04:04Z","timestamp":1787583844000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Improving outdoor navigation for people with blindness using an AI-driven smartphone application and personalized audio guidance"],"prefix":"10.1038","author":[{"given":"Raymond","family":"Liu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9302-3911","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Patrick","family":"Slade","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,24]]},"reference":[{"key":"1772_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"287","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1532-5415.1994.tb01753.x","volume":"42","author":"ME Salive","year":"1994","unstructured":"Salive, M. E. et al. Association of visual impairment with mobility and physical function. J. Am. Geriatr. Soc. 42, 287\u2013292 (1994).","journal-title":"J. Am. Geriatr. Soc."},{"key":"1772_CR2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"360","DOI":"10.1136\/bjo.2004.047498","volume":"89","author":"HTV Vu","year":"2005","unstructured":"Vu, H. T. V., Keeffe, J. E., McCarty, C. A. & Taylor, H. R. Impact of unilateral and bilateral vision loss on quality of life. Br. J. Ophthalmol. 89, 360\u2013363 (2005).","journal-title":"Br. J. Ophthalmol."},{"key":"1772_CR3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"336","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1442-9071.2010.02466.x","volume":"39","author":"JM Crewe","year":"2011","unstructured":"Crewe, J. M. et al. Quality of life of the most severely vision-impaired. Clin. Experiment. Ophthalmol. 39, 336\u2013343 (2011).","journal-title":"Clin. Experiment. Ophthalmol."},{"key":"1772_CR4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"368","DOI":"10.4103\/0301-4738.100529","volume":"60","author":"AR Ulldemolins","year":"2012","unstructured":"Ulldemolins, A. R., Lansingh, V. C., Valencia, L. G., Carter, M. J. & Eckert, K. A. Social inequalities in blindness and visual impairment: a review of social determinants. Indian J. Ophthalmol. 60, 368\u2013375 (2012).","journal-title":"Indian J. Ophthalmol."},{"key":"1772_CR5","unstructured":"LaPlante, M. P. Disability Risks of Chronic Illnesses and Impairments. Disability Statistics Report 2 (U.S. Department of Education, 1991)."},{"key":"1772_CR6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3404","DOI":"10.3390\/s19153404","volume":"19","author":"S Real","year":"2019","unstructured":"Real, S. & Araujo, A. Navigation systems for the blind and visually impaired: past work, challenges, and open problems. Sensors (Basel) 19, 3404 (2019).","journal-title":"Sensors (Basel)"},{"key":"1772_CR7","unstructured":"National Research Council (US) Working Group on Mobility Aids for the Visually Impaired and Blind. Electronic Travel AIDS: New Directions for Research (National Academies Press, 1986)."},{"key":"1772_CR8","first-page":"44","volume":"4","author":"R Manduchi","year":"2011","unstructured":"Manduchi, R. & Kurniawan, S. Mobility-related accidents experienced by people with visual impairment. AER J. Res. Pract. Vis. Impair. Blind. 4, 44\u201354 (2011).","journal-title":"AER J. Res. Pract. Vis. Impair. Blind."},{"key":"1772_CR9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"5454","DOI":"10.3390\/s22145454","volume":"22","author":"M Hersh","year":"2022","unstructured":"Hersh, M. Wearable travel aids for blind and partially sighted people: a review with a focus on design issues. Sensors (Basel) 22, 5454 (2022).","journal-title":"Sensors (Basel)"},{"key":"1772_CR10","unstructured":"Wiener, W. R., Welsh, R. L. & Blasch, B. B. Foundations of Orientation and Mobility 3rd edn (American Printing House for the Blind, 2010)."},{"key":"1772_CR11","unstructured":"Rosen, S. in Step-By-Step: Guide Mobility Techniques Ch. 5 (American Printing House for the Blind, 2007)."},{"key":"1772_CR12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"103","DOI":"10.3233\/TAD-150432","volume":"27","author":"M Hersh","year":"2015","unstructured":"Hersh, M. Cane use and late onset visual impairment. Technol. Disabil. 27, 103\u2013116 (2015).","journal-title":"Technol. Disabil."},{"key":"1772_CR13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.1080\/13882350590956439","volume":"7","author":"L Whitmarsh","year":"2005","unstructured":"Whitmarsh, L. The benefits of guide dog ownership. Vis. Impair. Res. 7, 27\u201342 (2005).","journal-title":"Vis. Impair. Res."},{"key":"1772_CR14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2987","DOI":"10.3390\/healthcare11222987","volume":"11","author":"JK Singleton","year":"2023","unstructured":"Singleton, J. K. Benefits of being teamed with a service dog for individuals living with visible and invisible disabilities. Healthcare (Basel) 11, 2987 (2023).","journal-title":"Healthcare (Basel)"},{"key":"1772_CR15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ran, L., Helal, S. & Moore, S. Drishti: an integrated indoor\/outdoor blind navigation system and service. In Proc. 2nd IEEE Annual Conference on Pervasive Computing and Communications 23\u201330 (IEEE, 2004).","DOI":"10.1109\/PERCOM.2004.1276842"},{"key":"1772_CR16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.1016\/j.patrec.2018.10.031","volume":"137","author":"R Tapu","year":"2020","unstructured":"Tapu, R., Mocanu, B. & Zaharia, T. Wearable assistive devices for visually impaired: a state of the art survey. Pattern Recognit. Lett. 137, 37\u201352 (2020).","journal-title":"Pattern Recognit. Lett."},{"key":"1772_CR17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"52171","DOI":"10.1007\/s11042-023-17552-7","volume":"83","author":"I Patel","year":"2023","unstructured":"Patel, I., Kulkarni, M. & Mehendale, N. Review of sensor-driven assistive device technologies for enhancing navigation for the visually impaired. Multimed. Tools Appl. 83, 52171\u201352195 (2023).","journal-title":"Multimed. Tools Appl."},{"key":"1772_CR18","first-page":"813","volume":"32","author":"S Maidenbaum","year":"2014","unstructured":"Maidenbaum, S. et al. The \u201cEyeCane\u201d, a new electronic travel aid for the blind: technology, behavior & swift learning. Restor. Neurol. Neurosci. 32, 813\u2013824 (2014).","journal-title":"Restor. Neurol. Neurosci."},{"key":"1772_CR19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"eabg6594","DOI":"10.1126\/scirobotics.abg6594","volume":"6","author":"P Slade","year":"2021","unstructured":"Slade, P., Tambe, A. & Kochenderfer, M. J. Multimodal sensing and intuitive steering assistance improve navigation and mobility for people with impaired vision. Sci. Robot. 6, eabg6594 (2021).","journal-title":"Sci. Robot."},{"key":"1772_CR20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"711","DOI":"10.1177\/0145482X0509901110","volume":"99","author":"W Penrod","year":"2005","unstructured":"Penrod, W., Corbett, M. D. & Blasch, B. Practice report: a master trainer class for professionals in teaching the UltraCane electronic travel device. J. Vis. Impair. Blind. 99, 711\u2013715 (2005).","journal-title":"J. Vis. Impair. Blind."},{"key":"1772_CR21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"583","DOI":"10.1109\/TNSRE.2018.2800665","volume":"26","author":"RK Katzschmann","year":"2018","unstructured":"Katzschmann, R. K., Araki, B. & Rus, D. Safe local navigation for visually impaired users with a time-of-flight and haptic feedback device. IEEE Trans. Neural Syst. Rehabil. Eng. 26, 583\u2013593 (2018).","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Neural Syst. Rehabil. Eng."},{"key":"1772_CR22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Guerreiro, J. et al. CaBot: designing and evaluating an autonomous navigation robot for blind people. In Proc. 21st International ACM SIGACCESS Conference on Computers and Accessibility 68\u201382 (ACM, 2019).","DOI":"10.1145\/3308561.3353771"},{"key":"1772_CR23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"7888","DOI":"10.3390\/s22207888","volume":"22","author":"MD Messaoudi","year":"2022","unstructured":"Messaoudi, M. D., Menelas, B.-A. J. & Mcheick, H. Review of navigation assistive tools and technologies for the visually impaired. Sensors (Basel) 22, 7888 (2022).","journal-title":"Sensors (Basel)"},{"key":"1772_CR24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"162306","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2021.3132887","volume":"9","author":"ADPD Santos","year":"2021","unstructured":"Santos, A. D. P. D., Suzuki, A. H. G., Medola, F. O. & Vaezipour, A. A systematic review of wearable devices for orientation and mobility of adults with visual impairment and blindness. IEEE Access 9, 162306\u2013162324 (2021).","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"1772_CR25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.1109\/TSMCC.2009.2021255","volume":"40","author":"D Dakopoulos","year":"2010","unstructured":"Dakopoulos, D. & Bourbakis, N. G. Wearable obstacle avoidance electronic travel aids for blind: a survey. IEEE Trans. Syst. Man Cybern. C Appl. Rev. 40, 25\u201335 (2010).","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Syst. Man Cybern. C Appl. Rev."},{"key":"1772_CR26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"66587","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2023.3285396","volume":"11","author":"P Xu","year":"2023","unstructured":"Xu, P., Kennedy, G. A., Zhao, F.-Y., Zhang, W.-J. & Van Schyndel, R. Wearable obstacle avoidance electronic travel aids for blind and visually impaired individuals: a systematic review. IEEE Access 11, 66587\u201366613 (2023).","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"1772_CR27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e6058","DOI":"10.7717\/peerj.6058","volume":"6","author":"I Khan","year":"2018","unstructured":"Khan, I., Khusro, S. & Ullah, I. Technology-assisted white cane: evaluation and future directions. PeerJ 6, e6058 (2018).","journal-title":"PeerJ"},{"key":"1772_CR28","unstructured":"Gelles-Watnick, R. Americans\u2019 use of mobile technology and home broadband. Pew Research Center https:\/\/www.pewresearch.org\/internet\/2024\/01\/31\/americans-use-of-mobile-technology-and-home-broadband\/ (2024)."},{"key":"1772_CR29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-021-87148-4","volume":"11","author":"GD Clemenson","year":"2021","unstructured":"Clemenson, G. D., Maselli, A., Fiannaca, A. J., Miller, A. & Gonzalez-Franco, M. Rethinking GPS navigation: creating cognitive maps through auditory clues. Sci. Rep. 11, 7764 (2021).","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"1772_CR30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kameswaran, V. et al. Understanding in-situ use of commonly available navigation technologies by people with visual impairments. In Proc. 22nd International ACM SIGACCESS Conference on Computers and Accessibility 1\u201312 (ACM, 2020).","DOI":"10.1145\/3373625.3416995"},{"key":"1772_CR31","unstructured":"Van Diggelen, F. & Enge, P. The world\u2019s first GPS MOOC and worldwide laboratory using smartphones. In Proc. 28th International Technical Meeting of the Satellite Division of The Institute of Navigation 361\u2013369 (ION GNSS+, 2015)."},{"key":"1772_CR32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ahmetovic, D. et al. NavCog: a navigational cognitive assistant for the blind. In Proc. 18th International Conference on Human\u2013Computer Interaction with Mobile Devices and Services 90\u201399 (ACM, 2016).","DOI":"10.1145\/2935334.2935361"},{"key":"1772_CR33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sato, D. et al. NavCog3: an evaluation of a smartphone-based blind indoor navigation assistant with semantic features in a large-scale environment. In Proc. 19th International ACM SIGACCESS Conference on Computers and Accessibility 270\u2013279 (ACM, 2017).","DOI":"10.1145\/3132525.3132535"},{"key":"1772_CR34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nair, V., Budhai, M., Olmschenk, G., Seiple, W. H. & Zhu, Z. ASSIST: personalized indoor navigation via multimodal sensors and high-level semantic information. In Lecture Notes in Computer Science 128\u2013143 (Springer International Publishing, 2019).","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-11024-6_9"},{"key":"1772_CR35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Croce, D. et al. ARIANNA: a smartphone-based navigation system with human in the loop. In 22nd Mediterranean Conference on Control and Automation 8\u201313 (IEEE, 2014).","DOI":"10.1109\/MED.2014.6961318"},{"key":"1772_CR36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"140","DOI":"10.1177\/0145482X19840918","volume":"113","author":"NA Giudice","year":"2019","unstructured":"Giudice, N. A., Whalen, W. E., Riehle, T. H., Anderson, S. M. & Doore, S. A. Evaluation of an accessible, real-time, and infrastructure-free indoor navigation system by users who are blind in the Mall of America. J. Vis. Impair. Blind. 113, 140\u2013155 (2019).","journal-title":"J. Vis. Impair. Blind."},{"key":"1772_CR37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"178","DOI":"10.1080\/10400435.2020.1743381","volume":"34","author":"A Budrionis","year":"2022","unstructured":"Budrionis, A., Plikynas, D., Daniu\u0161is, P. & Indrulionis, A. Smartphone-based computer vision travelling aids for blind and visually impaired individuals: a systematic review. Assist. Technol. 34, 178\u2013194 (2022).","journal-title":"Assist. Technol."},{"key":"1772_CR38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"779","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-024-07697-2","volume":"633","author":"P Slade","year":"2024","unstructured":"Slade, P. et al. On human-in-the-loop optimization of human\u2013robot interaction. Nature 633, 779\u2013788 (2024).","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"1772_CR39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"277","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-022-05191-1","volume":"610","author":"P Slade","year":"2022","unstructured":"Slade, P., Kochenderfer, M. J., Delp, S. L. & Collins, S. H. Personalizing exoskeleton assistance while walking in the real world. Nature 610, 277\u2013282 (2022).","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"1772_CR40","unstructured":"Schinazi, V. R. Representing Space: the Development, Content and Accuracy of Mental Representations by the Blind and Visually Impaired. PhD thesis, Bond Univ. (2008)."},{"key":"1772_CR41","unstructured":"Tang, S. et al. PP-MobileSeg: explore the fast and accurate semantic segmentation model on mobile devices. Preprint at https:\/\/arxiv.org\/abs\/2304.05152 (2023)."},{"key":"1772_CR42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Neuhold, G., Ollmann, T., Bulo, S. R. & Kontschieder, P. The mapillary vistas dataset for semantic understanding of street scenes. In 2017 IEEE International Conference on Computer Vision 5000\u20135009 (IEEE, 2017).","DOI":"10.1109\/ICCV.2017.534"},{"key":"1772_CR43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Moravec, H. & Elfes, A. High resolution maps from wide angle sonar. In Proc. 1985 IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation 116-121 (IEEE, 2005).","DOI":"10.1109\/ROBOT.1985.1087316"},{"key":"1772_CR44","unstructured":"Yang, L. et al. Depth Anything V2. In 38th Conference on Neural Information Processing Systems (NeurIPS 2024) https:\/\/proceedings.neurips.cc\/paper_files\/paper\/2024\/file\/26cfdcd8fe6fd75cc53e92963a656c58-Paper-Conference.pdf (2024)."},{"key":"1772_CR45","unstructured":"Gurram, A. & Lopez, A. M. On the metrics for evaluating monocular depth estimation. Preprint at https:\/\/arxiv.org\/abs\/2302.10007 (2023)."},{"key":"1772_CR46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"5382","DOI":"10.3390\/s22145382","volume":"22","author":"E Marino","year":"2022","unstructured":"Marino, E., Bruno, F., Barbieri, L. & Lagudi, A. Benchmarking built-in tracking systems for indoor AR applications on popular mobile devices. Sensors (Basel) 22, 5382 (2022).","journal-title":"Sensors (Basel)"},{"key":"1772_CR47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"159","DOI":"10.1162\/106365601750190398","volume":"9","author":"N Hansen","year":"2001","unstructured":"Hansen, N. & Ostermeier, A. Completely derandomized self-adaptation in evolution strategies. Evol. Comput. 9, 159\u2013195 (2001).","journal-title":"Evol. Comput."},{"key":"1772_CR48","unstructured":"Brooke, J. in Usability Evaluation In Industry 207\u2013212 (CRC Press, 1996)."},{"key":"1772_CR49","first-page":"158","volume":"13","author":"JR Lewis","year":"2018","unstructured":"Lewis, J. R. & Sauro, J. Item benchmarks for the system usability scale. J. Usability Stud. 13, 158\u2013167 (2018).","journal-title":"J. Usability Stud."},{"key":"1772_CR50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"139","DOI":"10.1016\/S0166-4115(08)62386-9","volume":"52","author":"SG Hart","year":"1988","unstructured":"Hart, S. G. & Staveland, L. E. Development of NASA-TLX (task load index): results of empirical and theoretical research. Adv. Psychol. 52, 139\u2013183 (1988).","journal-title":"Adv. Psychol."},{"key":"1772_CR51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1727","DOI":"10.1177\/1541931215591373","volume":"59","author":"RA Grier","year":"2015","unstructured":"Grier, R. A. How high is high? A meta-analysis of NASA-TLX global workload scores. Proc. Hum. Factors Ergon. Soc. Annu. Meet. 59, 1727\u20131731 (2015).","journal-title":"Proc. Hum. Factors Ergon. Soc. Annu. Meet."},{"key":"1772_CR52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1145\/3546714","volume":"6","author":"M Kuribayashi","year":"2022","unstructured":"Kuribayashi, M. et al. Corridor-Walker: mobile indoor walking assistance for blind people to avoid obstacles and recognize intersections. Proc. ACM Hum. Comput. Interact. 6, 1\u201322 (2022).","journal-title":"Proc. ACM Hum. Comput. Interact."},{"key":"1772_CR53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1145\/3349264","volume":"12","author":"D Ahmetovic","year":"2019","unstructured":"Ahmetovic, D. et al. Deep learning compensation of rotation errors during navigation assistance for people with visual impairments or blindness. ACM Trans. Access. Comput. 12, 1\u201319 (2019).","journal-title":"ACM Trans. Access. Comput."},{"key":"1772_CR54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ahmetovic, D. et al. Sonification of rotation instructions to support navigation of people with visual impairment. In Proc. 2019 IEEE International Conference on Pervasive Computing and Communications 1\u201310 (IEEE, 2019).","DOI":"10.1109\/PERCOM.2019.8767407"},{"key":"1772_CR55","unstructured":"Bradley, N. A. & Dunlop, M. D. Investigating context-aware clues to assist navigation for visually impaired people. In Proc. Workshop on Building Bridges: Interdisciplinary Context-Sensitive Computing, University of Glasgow 5\u201310 (2002)."},{"key":"1772_CR56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Azenkot, S., Ladner, R. E. & Wobbrock, J. O. Smartphone haptic feedback for nonvisual wayfinding. In Proc. 13th International ACM SIGACCESS Conference on Computers and Accessibility 281\u2013282 (ACM, 2011).","DOI":"10.1145\/2049536.2049607"},{"key":"1772_CR57","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1155\/2018\/3918284","volume":"2018","author":"S Spagnol","year":"2018","unstructured":"Spagnol, S. et al. Current use and future perspectives of spatial audio technologies in electronic travel aids. Wirel. Commun. Mob. Comput. 2018, 1\u201317 (2018).","journal-title":"Wirel. Commun. Mob. Comput."},{"key":"1772_CR58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Waghmare, S. M. et al. SANPO: A scene understanding, accessibility and human navigation dataset. In Proc. 2025 IEEE\/CVF Winter Conference on Applications of Computer Vision (WACV) 7866\u20137875 (IEEE, 2025).","DOI":"10.1109\/WACV61041.2025.00764"},{"key":"1772_CR59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cordts, M. et al. The Cityscapes dataset for semantic urban scene understanding. In Proc. 2016 IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition (CVPR) 3213\u20133223 (IEEE, 2016).","DOI":"10.1109\/CVPR.2016.350"},{"key":"1772_CR60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Berman, M., Triki, A. R. & Blaschko, M. B. The Lov\u00e1sz-Softmax loss: a tractable surrogate for the optimization of the intersection-over-union measure in neural networks. In Proc. 2018 IEEE\/CVF Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition (CVPR) 4413\u20134421 (IEEE, 2018).","DOI":"10.1109\/CVPR.2018.00464"},{"key":"1772_CR61","unstructured":"Loshchilov, I. & Hutter, F. Decoupled weight decay regularization. In Proc. International Conference on Learning Representations (ICLR) https:\/\/openreview.net\/pdf\/5963886abef941684ffc0cf670297e47fb1e5155.pdf (ICLR, 2019)."},{"key":"1772_CR62","unstructured":"Chen, L.-C., Papandreou, G., Schroff, F. & Adam, H. Rethinking atrous convolution for semantic image segmentation. Preprint at https:\/\/arxiv.org\/abs\/1706.05587 (2017)."},{"key":"1772_CR63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chen, L.-C., Zhu, Y., Papandreou, G., Schroff, F. & Adam, H. Encoder-decoder with atrous separable convolution for semantic image segmentation. In Proc. 2018 European Conference on Computer Vision (ECCV) 833\u2013851 (Springer International Publishing, 2018)","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-01234-2_49"},{"key":"1772_CR64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"He, K., Zhang, X., Ren, S. & Sun, J. Deep residual learning for image recognition. In Proc. 2016 IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition (CVPR) 770\u2013778 (IEEE, 2016).","DOI":"10.1109\/CVPR.2016.90"},{"key":"1772_CR65","unstructured":"MMSegmentation Contributors. MMSegmentation: OpenMMLab semantic segmentation toolbox and benchmark. GitHub https:\/\/github.com\/open-mmlab\/mmsegmentation (2020)."},{"key":"1772_CR66","unstructured":"Amanatides, J. & Woo, A. A fast voxel traversal algorithm for ray tracing. Proc. EUROGRAPHICS '87 3\u201310 (North-Holland, 1987)."},{"key":"1772_CR67","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"100","DOI":"10.1109\/TSSC.1968.300136","volume":"4","author":"P Hart","year":"1968","unstructured":"Hart, P., Nilsson, N. & Raphael, B. A formal basis for the heuristic determination of minimum cost paths. IEEE Trans. Syst. Sci. Cybern. 4, 100\u2013107 (1968).","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Syst. Sci. Cybern."},{"key":"1772_CR68","unstructured":"Dosovitskiy, A. et al. An image is worth 16x16 words: transformers for image recognition at scale. In Proc. International Conference on Learning Representations (ICLR) https:\/\/openreview.net\/pdf?id=YicbFdNTTy (ICLR, 2021)."},{"key":"1772_CR69","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1231","DOI":"10.1177\/0278364913491297","volume":"32","author":"A Geiger","year":"2013","unstructured":"Geiger, A., Lenz, P., Stiller, C. & Urtasun, R. Vision meets robotics: the KITTI dataset. Int. J. Robot. Res. 32, 1231\u20131237 (2013).","journal-title":"Int. J. Robot. Res."},{"key":"1772_CR70","first-page":"159","volume":"68","author":"R Sinnott","year":"1984","unstructured":"Sinnott, R. Virtues of the haversine. Sky Telesc. 68, 159 (1984).","journal-title":"Sky Telesc."},{"key":"1772_CR71","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1145\/3696005","volume":"17","author":"CH Tsai","year":"2024","unstructured":"Tsai, C. H., Elyasi, F., Ren, P. & Manduchi, R. All the way there and back: inertial-based, phone-in-pocket indoor Wayfinding and Backtracking apps for blind travelers. ACM Trans. Access. Comput. 17, 1\u201335 (2024).","journal-title":"ACM Trans. Access. Comput."},{"key":"1772_CR72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ren, P., Lam, J., Manduchi, R. & Mirzaei, F. Experiments with RouteNav, a wayfinding app for blind travelers in a transit hub. In Proc. 25th International ACM SIGACCESS Conference on Computers and Accessibility 1\u201315 (2023).","DOI":"10.1145\/3597638.3608428"},{"key":"1772_CR73","unstructured":"Sugiyama, W. Voice guidance in Maps, built for people with impaired vision. Google https:\/\/blog.google\/products\/maps\/better-maps-for-people-with-vision-impairments\/ (2019)."},{"key":"1772_CR74","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"93","DOI":"10.1007\/s10209-020-00712-z","volume":"20","author":"ADP Dos Santos","year":"2021","unstructured":"Dos Santos, A. D. P., Medola, F. O., Cinelli, M. J., Garcia Ramirez, A. R. & Sandnes, F. E. Are electronic white canes better than traditional canes? A comparative study with blind and blindfolded participants. Univers. Access Inf. Soc. 20, 93\u2013103 (2021).","journal-title":"Univers. Access Inf. Soc."},{"key":"1772_CR75","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"627","DOI":"10.1038\/s42256-025-01018-6","volume":"7","author":"J Tang","year":"2025","unstructured":"Tang, J. et al. Human-centred design and fabrication of a wearable multimodal visual assistance system. Nat. Mach. Intell. 7, 627\u2013638 (2025).","journal-title":"Nat. Mach. Intell."},{"key":"1772_CR76","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-026-37578-9","volume":"16","author":"CE Pittet","year":"2026","unstructured":"Pittet, C. E. et al. Efficacy of electronic travel aids for the blind and visually impaired during wayfinding. Sci. Rep. 16, 6423 (2026).","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."}],"container-title":["Nature Biomedical Engineering"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41551-026-01772-x.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41551-026-01772-x","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41551-026-01772-x.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,24]],"date-time":"2026-08-24T15:04:09Z","timestamp":1787583849000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41551-026-01772-x"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,24]]},"references-count":76,"alternative-id":["1772"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s41551-026-01772-x","relation":{},"ISSN":["2157-846X"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2157-846X","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,24]]},"assertion":[{"value":"11 February 2026","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"9 July 2026","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"24 August 2026","order":3,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"The authors declare no competing interests.","order":1,"name":"Ethics","label":"Competing interests","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Ethics"}}]}}