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However, conventional approaches, including titration and empirical estimation methods based on iron speciation, often fail to account for site-specific geochemical complexity. This study introduces a high-accuracy, site-specific empirical model for predicting acidity in AMD-impacted waters, developed from field data collected at the Trimpancho mining complex in the Iberian Pyrite Belt (Spain). Using multiple linear regression (MLR), a robust predictive relationship was established based on Cu, Al, Mn, Zn, and pH, achieving a coefficient of determination (R\u00b2) of 99.2%. The model significantly outperforms the standard Hedin method, with a lower mean absolute percentage error (13% vs. 29%). Results also reveal strong spatial and seasonal hydrochemical variability, underscoring the limitations of generalized acidity models in such environments. This work demonstrates the applicability of site-calibrated multivariate models as practical tools for enhancing acidity prediction in complex AMD systems.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-025-14273-9","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,30]],"date-time":"2025-09-30T15:24:25Z","timestamp":1759245865000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["A data-driven high-accuracy modelling of acidity behavior in heavily contaminated mining environments"],"prefix":"10.1038","volume":"15","author":[{"given":"Ana","family":"Barroso","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Teresa Maria","family":"Valente","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Am\u00e9lia Paula","family":"Marinho Reis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Isabel Margarida","family":"Horta Ribeiro Antunes","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,30]]},"reference":[{"issue":"A","key":"14273_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"133","DOI":"10.5382\/Rev.06.06","volume":"6","author":"DK Nordstrom","year":"1997","unstructured":"Nordstrom, D. 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