{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,14]],"date-time":"2026-07-14T13:07:10Z","timestamp":1784034430324,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":79,"publisher":"Portland Press Ltd.","issue":"1","content-domain":{"domain":["portlandpress.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":[],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2018,1,16]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>Accumulating evidence supports a relationship between the complexity and diversity of the gut microbiota and host diseases. In addition to alterations in the gut microbial composition, the metabolic potential of gut microbiota has been identified as a contributing factor in the development of diseases. Recent technological developments of molecular and biochemical analyses enable us to detect and characterize the gut microbiota via assessment and classification of its genomes and corresponding metabolites. These advances have provided emerging data supporting the role of gut microbiota in various physiological activities including host metabolism, neurological development, energy homeostasis, and immune regulation. Although few human studies have looked into the causative associations and underlying pathophysiology of the gut microbiota and host disease, a growing body of preclinical and clinical evidence supports the theory that the gut microbiota and its metabolites have the potential to be a novel therapeutic and preventative target for cardiovascular and metabolic diseases. In this review, we highlight the interplay between the gut microbiota and its metabolites, and the development and progression of hypertension, heart failure, and chronic kidney disease.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1042\/cs20171090","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2018,1,12]],"date-time":"2018-01-12T01:11:46Z","timestamp":1515719506000},"page":"85-91","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1042\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":87,"title":["Gut microbiota in cardiovascular disease and heart failure"],"prefix":"10.1042","volume":"132","author":[{"given":"Takeshi","family":"Kitai","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Cardiovascular Medicine, Heart and Vascular Institute, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, OH, U.S.A."},{"name":"Department of Cardiovascular Medicine, Kobe City Medical Center General Hospital, Kobe, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"W.H.\u00a0Wilson","family":"Tang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Cardiovascular Medicine, Heart and Vascular Institute, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, OH, U.S.A."},{"name":"Center for Clinical Genomics, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, OH, U.S.A."}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"288","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,1,11]]},"reference":[{"key":"2021113010531669100_B1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"189","DOI":"10.1007\/s11154-014-9288-6","article-title":"Gut microbiota and GLP-1","volume":"15","author":"Everard","year":"2014","journal-title":"Rev. Endocr. Metab. Disord."},{"key":"2021113010531669100_B2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"387","DOI":"10.1017\/S0007114513002560","article-title":"Intestinal microbiota, diet and health","volume":"111","author":"Power","year":"2014","journal-title":"Br. J. Nutr."},{"key":"2021113010531669100_B3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"824","DOI":"10.1002\/mnfr.201200714","article-title":"Uremia and chronic kidney disease: the role of the gut microflora and therapies with pro- and prebiotics","volume":"57","author":"Vitetta","year":"2013","journal-title":"Mol. Nutr. Food Res."},{"key":"2021113010531669100_B4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16079","DOI":"10.3748\/wjg.v20.i43.16079","article-title":"Gut microbiota and metabolic syndrome","volume":"20","author":"Festi","year":"2014","journal-title":"World J. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"2021113010531669100_B5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15624","DOI":"10.3748\/wjg.v20.i42.15624","article-title":"Gut microbiota-related complications in cirrhosis","volume":"20","author":"Gomez-Hurtado","year":"2014","journal-title":"World J. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"2021113010531669100_B6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2609","DOI":"10.3748\/wjg.v18.i21.2609","article-title":"Leaky gut and the liver: a role for bacterial translocation in nonalcoholic steatohepatitis","volume":"18","author":"Ilan","year":"2012","journal-title":"World J. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"2021113010531669100_B7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"141","DOI":"10.1016\/j.immuni.2005.12.013","article-title":"The calcineurin phosphatase complex modulates immunogenic B cell responses","volume":"24","author":"Winslow","year":"2006","journal-title":"Immunity"},{"key":"2021113010531669100_B8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"771","DOI":"10.1016\/j.molmet.2016.05.016","article-title":"Gut microbiota and immune crosstalk in metabolic disease","volume":"5","author":"Burcelin","year":"2016","journal-title":"Mol. Metab."},{"key":"2021113010531669100_B9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"213","DOI":"10.1038\/nature18309","article-title":"Acetate mediates a microbiome-brain-beta-cell axis to promote metabolic syndrome","volume":"534","author":"Perry","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"2021113010531669100_B10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"65","DOI":"10.1038\/nature18847","article-title":"The microbiome and innate immunity","volume":"535","author":"Thaiss","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"2021113010531669100_B11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1079","DOI":"10.1038\/nm.4185","article-title":"Signals from the gut microbiota to distant organs in physiology and disease","volume":"22","author":"Schroeder","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nat. Med."},{"key":"2021113010531669100_B12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1183","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCRESAHA.117.309715","article-title":"Gut microbiota in cardiovascular health and disease","volume":"120","author":"Tang","year":"2017","journal-title":"Circ. Res."},{"key":"2021113010531669100_B13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4204","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI72331","article-title":"The contributory role of gut microbiota in cardiovascular disease","volume":"124","author":"Tang","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Clin. Invest."},{"key":"2021113010531669100_B14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"pii: F1000","DOI":"10.12688\/f1000research.7022.1","article-title":"Recent advances in treatment of heart failure","volume":"4","author":"Kitai","year":"2015","journal-title":"F1000Res."},{"key":"2021113010531669100_B15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"799","DOI":"10.1016\/j.recesp.2017.04.003","article-title":"The role and impact of gut microbiota in cardiovascular disease","volume":"70","author":"Kitai","year":"2017","journal-title":"Rev. Esp. Cardiol."},{"key":"2021113010531669100_B16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"142","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2014.02.032","article-title":"The virome in mammalian physiology and disease","volume":"157","author":"Virgin","year":"2014","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"2021113010531669100_B17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"334","DOI":"10.1038\/nature09199","article-title":"Viruses in the faecal microbiota of monozygotic twins and their mothers","volume":"466","author":"Reyes","year":"2010","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"2021113010531669100_B18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1135","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2010.05.009","article-title":"Virus-plus-susceptibility gene interaction determines Crohn\u2019s disease gene Atg16L1 phenotypes in intestine","volume":"141","author":"Cadwell","year":"2010","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"2021113010531669100_B19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12450","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1300833110","article-title":"Rapid evolution of the human gut virome","volume":"110","author":"Minot","year":"2013","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A."},{"key":"2021113010531669100_B20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"632","DOI":"10.1111\/cmi.12585","article-title":"Microbes and the mind: emerging hallmarks of the gut microbiota-brain axis","volume":"18","author":"Bauer","year":"2016","journal-title":"Cell. Microbiol."},{"key":"2021113010531669100_B21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"32","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbr.2014.07.027","article-title":"Serotonin, tryptophan metabolism and the brain-gut-microbiome axis","volume":"277","author":"O\u2019Mahony","year":"2015","journal-title":"Behav. Brain Res."},{"key":"2021113010531669100_B22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6152","DOI":"10.2174\/1381612822666160907093807","article-title":"The gut-brain axis, including the microbiome, leaky gut and bacterial translocation: mechanisms and pathophysiological role in Alzheimer\u2019s disease","volume":"22","author":"Kohler","year":"2016","journal-title":"Curr. Pharm. Des."},{"key":"2021113010531669100_B23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"489","DOI":"10.1113\/JP273106","article-title":"Gut instincts: microbiota as a key regulator of brain development, ageing and neurodegeneration","volume":"595","author":"Dinan","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Physiol."},{"key":"2021113010531669100_B24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1469","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2016.11.018","article-title":"Gut microbiota regulate motor deficits and neuroinflammation in a model of Parkinson\u2019s disease","volume":"167","author":"Sampson","year":"2016","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"2021113010531669100_B25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"965","DOI":"10.1038\/nn.4030","article-title":"Host microbiota constantly control maturation and function of microglia in the CNS","volume":"18","author":"Erny","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nat. Neurosci."},{"key":"2021113010531669100_B26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"469","DOI":"10.1161\/HYPERTENSIONAHA.115.06672","article-title":"Role of the gut microbiome in obstructive sleep apnea-induced hypertension","volume":"67","author":"Durgan","year":"2016","journal-title":"Hypertension"},{"key":"2021113010531669100_B27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1331","DOI":"10.1161\/HYPERTENSIONAHA.115.05315","article-title":"Gut dysbiosis is linked to hypertension","volume":"65","author":"Yang","year":"2015","journal-title":"Hypertension"},{"key":"2021113010531669100_B28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"396","DOI":"10.1038\/nature06882","article-title":"Human metabolic phenotype diversity and its association with diet and blood pressure","volume":"453","author":"Holmes","year":"2008","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"2021113010531669100_B29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"187","DOI":"10.1152\/physiolgenomics.00136.2014","article-title":"Evidence for a link between gut microbiota and hypertension in the Dahl rat","volume":"47","author":"Mell","year":"2015","journal-title":"Physiol. Genomics"},{"key":"2021113010531669100_B30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"157","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijcard.2015.07.078","article-title":"Impact of antibiotics on arterial blood pressure in a patient with resistant hypertension - a case report","volume":"201","author":"Qi","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int. J. Cardiol."},{"key":"2021113010531669100_B31","first-page":"H561","article-title":"Vasorelaxant effects of short chain fatty acid salts in rat caudal artery","volume":"261","author":"Nutting","year":"1991","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol."},{"key":"2021113010531669100_B32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"F439","DOI":"10.1152\/ajprenal.00252.2013","article-title":"Renal and cardiovascular sensory receptors and blood pressure regulation","volume":"305","author":"Pluznick","year":"2013","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol. Renal Physiol."},{"key":"2021113010531669100_B33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1391","DOI":"10.1136\/gut.31.12.1391","article-title":"Short chain fatty acids dilate isolated human colonic resistance arteries","volume":"31","author":"Mortensen","year":"1990","journal-title":"Gut"},{"key":"2021113010531669100_B34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2059","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0812859106","article-title":"Functional expression of the olfactory signaling system in the kidney","volume":"106","author":"Pluznick","year":"2009","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A."},{"key":"2021113010531669100_B35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4410","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1215927110","article-title":"Olfactory receptor responding to gut microbiota-derived signals plays a role in renin secretion and blood pressure regulation","volume":"110","author":"Pluznick","year":"2013","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A."},{"key":"2021113010531669100_B36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"438","DOI":"10.1159\/000343886","article-title":"Uremic plasma impairs barrier function and depletes the tight junction protein constituents of intestinal epithelium","volume":"36","author":"Vaziri","year":"2012","journal-title":"Am. J. Nephrol."},{"key":"2021113010531669100_B37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"924","DOI":"10.1093\/ndt\/gfu287","article-title":"Alterations of intestinal barrier and microbiota in chronic kidney disease","volume":"30","author":"Sabatino","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nephrol. Dial. Transplant."},{"key":"2021113010531669100_B38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"657","DOI":"10.1681\/ASN.2013080905","article-title":"The gut microbiome, kidney disease, and targeted interventions","volume":"25","author":"Ramezani","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Am. Soc. Nephrol."},{"key":"2021113010531669100_B39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"403","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejheart.2004.03.002","article-title":"Studies on intragastric PCO2 at rest and during exercise as a marker of intestinal perfusion in patients with chronic heart failure","volume":"6","author":"Krack","year":"2004","journal-title":"Eur. J. Heart Fail."},{"key":"2021113010531669100_B40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1561","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jacc.2007.07.016","article-title":"Altered intestinal function in patients with chronic heart failure","volume":"50","author":"Sandek","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Am. Coll. Cardiol."},{"key":"2021113010531669100_B41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"80","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijcard.2010.12.016","article-title":"Studies on bacterial endotoxin and intestinal absorption function in patients with chronic heart failure","volume":"157","author":"Sandek","year":"2012","journal-title":"Int. J. Cardiol."},{"key":"2021113010531669100_B42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"485","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jacc.2013.04.070","article-title":"Abdominal contributions to cardiorenal dysfunction in congestive heart failure","volume":"62","author":"Verbrugge","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Am. Coll. Cardiol."},{"key":"2021113010531669100_B43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1838","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(98)09286-1","article-title":"Endotoxin and immune activation in chronic heart failure: a prospective cohort study","volume":"353","author":"Niebauer","year":"1999","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"2021113010531669100_B44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2109","DOI":"10.1007\/s10620-014-3202-7","article-title":"Gut bacterial translocation may aggravate microinflammation in hemodialysis patients","volume":"59","author":"Shi","year":"2014","journal-title":"Dig. Dis. Sci."},{"key":"2021113010531669100_B45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"220","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jchf.2015.10.009","article-title":"Pathogenic gut flora in patients with chronic heart failure","volume":"4","author":"Pasini","year":"2016","journal-title":"JACC Heart Fail."},{"key":"2021113010531669100_B46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"733","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1440-1797.2012.01647.x","article-title":"Gut bacterial translocation is associated with microinflammation in end-stage renal disease patients","volume":"17","author":"Wang","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nephrology"},{"key":"2021113010531669100_B47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"282","DOI":"10.1002\/ehf2.12155","article-title":"Heart failure is associated with depletion of core intestinal microbiota","volume":"4","author":"Luedde","year":"2017","journal-title":"ESC Heart Fail."},{"key":"2021113010531669100_B48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1575","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1109400","article-title":"Intestinal microbial metabolism of phosphatidylcholine and cardiovascular risk","volume":"368","author":"Tang","year":"2013","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"2021113010531669100_B49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"57","DOI":"10.1038\/nature09922","article-title":"Gut flora metabolism of phosphatidylcholine promotes cardiovascular disease","volume":"472","author":"Wang","year":"2011","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"2021113010531669100_B50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1908","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jacc.2014.02.617","article-title":"Prognostic value of elevated levels of intestinal microbe-generated metabolite trimethylamine-N-oxide in patients with heart failure: refining the gut hypothesis","volume":"64","author":"Tang","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Am. Coll. Cardiol."},{"key":"2021113010531669100_B51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"448","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCRESAHA.116.305360","article-title":"Gut microbiota-dependent trimethylamine N-oxide (TMAO) pathway contributes to both development of renal insufficiency and mortality risk in chronic kidney disease","volume":"116","author":"Tang","year":"2015","journal-title":"Circ. Res."},{"key":"2021113010531669100_B52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"pii: e004237","DOI":"10.1161\/JAHA.116.004237","article-title":"Trimethylamine N-oxide and mortality risk in patients with peripheral artery disease","volume":"5","author":"Senthong","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Am. Heart Assoc."},{"key":"2021113010531669100_B53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"533","DOI":"10.1038\/nm.3178","article-title":"Meat-metabolizing bacteria in atherosclerosis","volume":"19","author":"Backhed","year":"2013","journal-title":"Nat. Med."},{"key":"2021113010531669100_B54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e002314","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCHEARTFAILURE.115.002314","article-title":"Choline diet and its gut microbe-derived metabolite, trimethylamine N-oxide, exacerbate pressure overload-induced heart failure","volume":"9","author":"Organ","year":"2016","journal-title":"Circ. Heart Fail."},{"key":"2021113010531669100_B55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"717","DOI":"10.1111\/joim.12328","article-title":"Microbiota-dependent metabolite trimethylamine-N-oxide is associated with disease severity and survival of patients with chronic heart failure","volume":"277","author":"Troseid","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Intern. Med."},{"key":"2021113010531669100_B56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2788","DOI":"10.1093\/ndt\/gfl273","article-title":"Associations between renal function, volume status and endotoxaemia in chronic kidney disease patients","volume":"21","author":"Goncalves","year":"2006","journal-title":"Nephrol. Dial. Transplant."},{"key":"2021113010531669100_B57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3698","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0812874106","article-title":"Metabolomics analysis reveals large effects of gut microflora on mammalian blood metabolites","volume":"106","author":"Wikoff","year":"2009","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A."},{"key":"2021113010531669100_B58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"30","DOI":"10.2215\/CJN.05340610","article-title":"Indoxyl sulfate-induced endothelial dysfunction in patients with chronic kidney disease via an induction of oxidative stress","volume":"6","author":"Yu","year":"2011","journal-title":"Clin. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol."},{"key":"2021113010531669100_B59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1183","DOI":"10.1093\/ndt\/gfp592","article-title":"Free p-cresylsulphate is a predictor of mortality in patients at different stages of chronic kidney disease","volume":"25","author":"Liabeuf","year":"2010","journal-title":"Nephrol. Dial. Transplant."},{"key":"2021113010531669100_B60","first-page":"S15","article-title":"Indoxyl sulfate increases the gene expressions of TGF-beta 1, TIMP-1 and pro-alpha 1(I) collagen in uremic rat kidneys","volume":"62","author":"Miyazaki","year":"1997","journal-title":"Kidney Int. Suppl."},{"issue":"Suppl. 2","key":"2021113010531669100_B61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S298","DOI":"10.1177\/089686080702702s51","article-title":"Adipokines and gut hormones in end-stage renal disease","volume":"27","author":"Mak","year":"2007","journal-title":"Perit. Dial. Int."},{"key":"2021113010531669100_B62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0132589","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0132589","article-title":"Meta-analysis of the associations of p-cresyl sulfate (PCS) and indoxyl sulfate (IS) with cardiovascular events and all-cause mortality in patients with chronic renal failure","volume":"10","author":"Lin","year":"2015","journal-title":"PLoS ONE"},{"key":"2021113010531669100_B63","first-page":"S23","article-title":"The protein metabolite hypothesis, a model for the progression of renal failure: an oral adsorbent lowers indoxyl sulfate levels in undialyzed uremic patients","volume":"62","author":"Niwa","year":"1997","journal-title":"Kidney Int. Suppl."},{"key":"2021113010531669100_B64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"381","DOI":"10.1016\/j.atherosclerosis.2010.04.010","article-title":"Uraemic toxins for consideration by the cardiologist-Beyond traditional and non-traditional cardiovascular risk factors","volume":"211","author":"Massy","year":"2010","journal-title":"Atherosclerosis"},{"key":"2021113010531669100_B65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e34026","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0034026","article-title":"Uremic toxins induce kidney fibrosis by activating intrarenal renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system associated epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition","volume":"7","author":"Sun","year":"2012","journal-title":"PLoS ONE"},{"key":"2021113010531669100_B66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"308","DOI":"10.1038\/ki.2012.345","article-title":"Chronic kidney disease alters intestinal microbial flora","volume":"83","author":"Vaziri","year":"2013","journal-title":"Kidney Int."},{"key":"2021113010531669100_B67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1041","DOI":"10.1681\/ASN.2009111132","article-title":"Metabolite profiling identifies markers of uremia","volume":"21","author":"Rhee","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Am. Soc. Nephrol."},{"key":"2021113010531669100_B68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"91","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cardfail.2014.11.006","article-title":"Intestinal microbiota-dependent phosphatidylcholine metabolites, diastolic dysfunction, and adverse clinical outcomes in chronic systolic heart failure","volume":"21","author":"Tang","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Card. Fail."},{"key":"2021113010531669100_B69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"305","DOI":"10.1681\/ASN.2014111063","article-title":"Serum trimethylamine-N-oxide is elevated in CKD and correlates with coronary atherosclerosis burden","volume":"27","author":"Stubbs","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Am. Soc. Nephrol."},{"key":"2021113010531669100_B70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"551","DOI":"10.3109\/00498258709043962","article-title":"The metabolism of 14C-labelled trimethylamine and its N-oxide in man","volume":"17","author":"Al-Waiz","year":"1987","journal-title":"Xenobiotica"},{"key":"2021113010531669100_B71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"638","DOI":"10.1016\/j.atherosclerosis.2015.10.091","article-title":"Plasma levels of trimethylamine-N-oxide are confounded by impaired kidney function and poor metabolic control","volume":"243","author":"Mueller","year":"2015","journal-title":"Atherosclerosis"},{"key":"2021113010531669100_B72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"pii: e004947","DOI":"10.1161\/JAHA.116.004947","article-title":"Gut microbiota metabolites and risk of major adverse cardiovascular disease events and death: a systematic review and meta-analysis of prospective studies","volume":"6","author":"Heianza","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Am. Heart Assoc."},{"key":"2021113010531669100_B73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1279","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1200303","article-title":"Primary prevention of cardiovascular disease with a Mediterranean diet","volume":"368","author":"Estruch","year":"2013","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"2021113010531669100_B74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1117","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJM199704173361601","article-title":"A clinical trial of the effects of dietary patterns on blood pressure. DASH Collaborative Research Group","volume":"336","author":"Appel","year":"1997","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"2021113010531669100_B75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110","DOI":"10.1039\/c0fo00032a","article-title":"Mediterranean diet improves dyslipidemia and biomarkers in chronic renal failure patients","volume":"1","author":"Mekki","year":"2010","journal-title":"Food Funct."},{"key":"2021113010531669100_B76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"559","DOI":"10.1038\/nature12820","article-title":"Diet rapidly and reproducibly alters the human gut microbiome","volume":"505","author":"David","year":"2014","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"2021113010531669100_B77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"738","DOI":"10.1038\/oby.2011.111","article-title":"Responses of gut microbiota to diet composition and weight loss in lean and obese mice","volume":"20","author":"Ravussin","year":"2012","journal-title":"Obesity"},{"key":"2021113010531669100_B78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"678","DOI":"10.1038\/ejcn.2011.210","article-title":"Daily profiles of energy and nutrient intakes: are eating profiles changing over time?","volume":"66","author":"Almoosawi","year":"2012","journal-title":"Eur. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"2021113010531669100_B79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"467","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1574-695X.2012.00978.x","article-title":"Early administration of probiotic Lactobacillus acidophilus and\/or prebiotic inulin attenuates pathogen-mediated intestinal inflammation and Smad 7 cell signaling","volume":"65","author":"Foye","year":"2012","journal-title":"FEMS Immunol. Med. Microbiol."}],"container-title":["Clinical Science"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/portlandpress.com\/clinsci\/article-pdf\/132\/1\/85\/450538\/cs-2017-1090c.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"syndication"},{"URL":"https:\/\/portlandpress.com\/clinsci\/article-pdf\/132\/1\/85\/450538\/cs-2017-1090c.pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2021,11,30]],"date-time":"2021-11-30T11:44:52Z","timestamp":1638272692000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/portlandpress.com\/clinsci\/article\/132\/1\/85\/71662\/Gut-microbiota-in-cardiovascular-disease-and-heart"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2018,1,11]]},"references-count":79,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2018,1,16]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1042\/cs20171090","relation":{},"ISSN":["0143-5221","1470-8736"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0143-5221","type":"print"},{"value":"1470-8736","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2018,1,11]]}}}