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In contrast, photobiomodulation (PBM) has attracted increasing attention due to its non-invasive nature, multi-target effects, and favourable safety profile. In brain diseases, PBM employs specific light wavelengths to activate mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase and photosensitive proteins and to regulate neuronal oscillatory activity and neuroglial functions. Human studies demonstrated the efficacy of PBM in improving cognitive performance, motor symptoms, and emotional distress in patients with neurodegenerative diseases, brain trauma, and psychiatric disorders. Therapeutic outcomes are influenced by key parameters of the protocol, such as wavelength, dosage, and frequency, as well as inter-individual variability in anatomical and physiological factors. Future research needs to focus on establishing a database of disease-specific parameters to enable personalised treatment protocols by integrating imaging and molecular biomarkers and performing large-scale clinical trials to validate long-term safety and translational potential.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1042\/cs20261472","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,30]],"date-time":"2026-09-30T07:28:08Z","timestamp":1790753288000},"page":"2199-2228","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1042\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Photobiomodulation: multifaceted therapeutic effects on disorders in the central nervous system"],"prefix":"10.1042","volume":"140","author":[{"given":"Weijie","family":"Xiong","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"1Department of Geriatrics, Seventh Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University, Shenzhen 518107, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yixun","family":"Su","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"1Department of Geriatrics, Seventh Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University, Shenzhen 518107, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Hui","family":"Chen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"2School of Life Sciences, Faculty of Science, University of Technology Sydney, Ultimo, NSW 2007, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Alexei","family":"Verkhratsky","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"1Department of Geriatrics, Seventh Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University, Shenzhen 518107, China"},{"name":"3Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, The University of Manchester, Manchester, U.K."},{"name":"4International Joint Research Centre on Purinergic Signalling of Sichuan Province Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu 611137, China"},{"name":"5Department of Forensic Analytical Toxicology, School of Forensic Medicine, China Medical University, Shenyang, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8686-4525","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Chenju","family":"Yi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"1Department of Geriatrics, Seventh Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University, Shenzhen 518107, China"},{"name":"6Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Chinese Medicine Active Substance Screening and Translational Research, Shenzhen 518107, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"288","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,30]]},"reference":[{"key":"2026093003280311700_B1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"459","DOI":"10.1016\/S1474-4422(18)30499-X","article-title":"Global, regional, and national burden of neurological disorders, 1990\u20132016: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2016","volume":"18","author":"Feigin","year":"2016","journal-title":"Lancet Neurology"},{"key":"2026093003280311700_B2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"283","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(23)01419-8","article-title":"The epidemiology of Parkinson\u2019s disease","volume":"403","author":"Ben-Shlomo","year":"2024","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"2026093003280311700_B3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1186\/s40779-023-00463-x","article-title":"China stroke surveillance report 2021","volume":"10","author":"Tu","year":"2023","journal-title":"Mil. 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