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The multicellular antibiotic-producing soil bacterium Streptomyces provides a useful model for exploring how internal conflicts emerge and are resolved in biology. These organisms must balance two resource-intensive processes that can create internal conflicts\u2014natural product biosynthesis and sporulation. In Streptomyces, there is potential to mitigate these internal conflicts through division of labour, phenotypic specialisation, and extensive gene duplication and diversification, enabling colonies to optimise both natural product production and reproductive success. Horizontal gene transfer further expands gene families and BGCs, introducing new metabolic capabilities while generating opportunities for functional divergence to reduce internal conflict and potentially promote kin selection. Natural product BGCs also possess features that could identify them as \u2018greenbeards\u2019 (kin selection by trait), promoting cooperation among producers and harming non-producers. The coexistence of multiple natural product BGCs and resistance mechanisms in Streptomyces is discussed in the context of the diverse eco-evolutionary processes occurring in structured natural environments, competition among close relatives, recurrent BGC acquisition, and regulatory compatibility encountered by Streptomyces.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1042\/ebc20250017","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,1]],"date-time":"2026-07-01T08:14:32Z","timestamp":1782893672000},"page":"259-268","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1042\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Considering internal conflict in the face of natural product biosynthesis and biosynthetic gene cluster evolution"],"prefix":"10.1042","volume":"70","author":[{"given":"John","family":"Bruce","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"1Strathclyde Institute of Pharmacy and Biomedical Sciences, University of Strathclyde, 161 Cathedral Street, Glasgow, G4 0RE, U.K."}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Francisco","family":"Barona-G\u00f3mez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"2Institute of Biology, Leiden University. 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