{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,8]],"date-time":"2026-01-08T19:29:48Z","timestamp":1767900588734,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":110,"publisher":"American Speech Language Hearing Association","issue":"3","content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Am J Speech Lang Pathol"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2020,8,4]]},"abstract":"<jats:sec><jats:title>Introduction<\/jats:title><jats:p>The purpose of this study is to present three case studies of developmental dyslexia in dual-language learners (DLLs) and our assessment process. We identify how phonological and orthographic deficits influence reading outcomes. We review the literature on theoretical models of bilingualism and reading models of developmental dyslexia to guide the assessment process through a multicomponential approach. We point out differences in the manifestation of dyslexia in more and less transparent writing systems. We suggest that reading instruction in Spanish can afford benefits to English\u2013Spanish DLLs with developmental dyslexia.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Method<\/jats:title><jats:p>The study included three participants, two in fifth grade (10.3\u201311.7 years) and one in college (18.7 years). The assessment battery included reading nonwords and sight words (Test of Word Reading Efficiency); reading accuracy, fluency, and comprehension (Gray Oral Reading Tests\u2013Fourth Edition); phonological awareness subtests (Comprehensive Test of Phonological Processing); and rapid automatized naming tests. A language and reading history interview was elicited from the mothers. In addition, we analyzed the participants' phonemic and word errors in reading.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Results<\/jats:title><jats:p>Our three participants showed core phonological deficits, with decreased performance in decoding nonwords and low accuracy in reading aloud. In spite of their reading and writing deficits, reading comprehension was within average levels for the three participants in this study.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Conclusions<\/jats:title><jats:p>We show the importance of assessing reading processes in students with a history of reading and writing problems. Our findings are based on three single case studies and are not generalizable. Our aim is to stimulate questions and research on dyslexia and the particular needs of DLLs.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1044\/2020_ajslp-19-00175","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,8,4]],"date-time":"2020-08-04T21:57:39Z","timestamp":1596578259000},"page":"1133-1151","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":7,"title":["Phonological\u2013Orthographic Deficits in Developmental Dyslexia in Three Spanish\u2013English Bilingual Students"],"prefix":"10.1044","volume":"29","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4226-0436","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Elizabeth","family":"Ijalba","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Linguistics and Communication Disorders, Queens College, City University of New York, NY"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Alicia","family":"Bustos","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"New York, NY"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Sayume","family":"Romero","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, NY"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1310","reference":[{"key":"e_1_3_1_2_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/152574019902100102"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_3_1","first-page":"187","volume-title":"Bilingual language development and disorders in Spanish\u2013English speakers","author":"Anderson R.","year":"2004"},{"issue":"1","key":"e_1_3_1_4_1","first-page":"71","article-title":"Applicability of dual-route reading models to Spanish","volume":"28","author":"Ardila A.","year":"2016","journal-title":"Psichothema"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_5_1","volume-title":"Foundations of bilingual education and bilingualism","author":"Baker C.","year":"2011","edition":"5"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_6_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bandl.2006.05.001"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_7_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/02643290802221404"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_8_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cognition.2011.08.003"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_9_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/S0142716400010584"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_10_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/0956797612473122"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_11_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1044\/0161-1461(2007\/026)"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_12_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.5231\/psy.writ.2011.1407"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_13_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s11145-012-9391-6"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_14_1","volume-title":"Oral and Written Language Scales: Listening comprehension and oral expression","author":"Carrow-Woolfolk E.","year":"1995"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_15_1","volume-title":"Oral and Written Language Scales: Written expression scale","author":"Carrow-Woolfolk E.","year":"1996"},{"issue":"1","key":"e_1_3_1_16_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.1080\/13603110600574454","article-title":"The dual route model and the developmental dyslexias","volume":"4","author":"Castles A.","year":"2006","journal-title":"London Review of Education"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_17_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jecp.2010.07.006"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_18_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1044\/1092-4388(2005\/096)"},{"issue":"2","key":"e_1_3_1_19_1","first-page":"263","article-title":"Phonological awareness: Cross-linguistic comparisons with a focus on Spanish","volume":"45","author":"Clinton A.","year":"2011","journal-title":"Interamerican Journal of Psychology"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_20_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6","DOI":"10.1002\/9780470757642.ch1","volume-title":"The science of reading: A handbook","author":"Coltheart M.","year":"2005"},{"issue":"1","key":"e_1_3_1_21_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.1080\/13603110600574322","article-title":"Dual route and connectionist models of reading: An overview","volume":"4","author":"Coltheart M.","year":"2006","journal-title":"London Review of Education"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_22_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1467-7687.2005.00453.x"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_23_1","first-page":"32","volume-title":"Language, culture and education. Challenges of diversity in the United States","author":"Crowley C. J.","year":"2019"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_24_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/002205748116300104"},{"issue":"4","key":"e_1_3_1_25_1","first-page":"585","article-title":"A proposal for action: Strategies for recognizing heritage language competence as a learning resource within the mainstream classroom","volume":"89","author":"Cummins J.","year":"2005","journal-title":"Modern Language Journal"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_26_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.21832\/9781853598968-003"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_27_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/tesq.241"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_28_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/0012-1649.33.6.934"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_29_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s11881-007-0010-1"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_30_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1044\/2015_JSLHR-L-14-0019"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_31_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0010-9452(74)80009-2"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_32_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/02643291003691106"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_33_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s11881-002-0012-y"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_34_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-0663.85.3.453"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_35_1","first-page":"79","volume-title":"Reading development and the teaching of reading: A psychological perspective","author":"Ehri L.","year":"1999"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_36_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1207\/s1532799xssr0902_4"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_37_1","volume-title":"Reading, writing, and dyslexia","author":"Ellis A. W.","year":"1993"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_38_1","volume-title":"Biliteracy from the start: Literacy squared in action","author":"Escamilla K.","year":"2014"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_39_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1044\/1092-4388(2009\/07-0064)"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_40_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02648022"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_41_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.21832\/9781847691910-011"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_42_1","volume-title":"Educating emergent bilinguals","author":"Garcia O.","year":"2010"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_43_1","author":"Garcia O.","year":"2014","journal-title":"Translanguaging, language, bilingualism & education. Macmillan"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_44_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/S0305000900013490"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_45_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9780511499913"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_46_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/S0305000900009971"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_47_1","volume-title":"Developing literacy in second-language learners. report of the national literacy panel on language-minority children and youth","author":"Geva E.","year":"2006"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_48_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/a0031780"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_49_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/02667360500344823"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_50_1","volume-title":"Children's cognitive development and learning","author":"Goswami U.","year":"2015"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_51_1","volume-title":"Phonological skills and learning to read","author":"Goswami U.","year":"1990"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_52_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1162\/jocn.2010.21453"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_53_1","volume-title":"Bilinguality and bilingualism","author":"Hamers J.","year":"2009"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_54_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-295X.106.3.491"},{"issue":"2","key":"e_1_3_1_55_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.4067\/S0718-22282005000200007","article-title":"Una aproximaci\u00f3n al procesamiento fonol\u00f3gico de los ni\u00f1os prelectores: Conciencia fonol\u00f3gica, memoria verbal a corto plazo y denominaci\u00f3n [An approximation to phonological processing in children at the pre-reading level: Phonological awareness, short-term verbal memory, and rapid automatized naming]","volume":"14","author":"Herrera L.","year":"2005","journal-title":"Psykhe"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_56_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/0265659014548519"},{"issue":"4","key":"e_1_3_1_57_1","first-page":"212","article-title":"Phonological deficits in developmental dyslexia in a second grade Spanish\u2013English bilingual child","volume":"2","author":"Ijalba E.","year":"2017","journal-title":"SIG 1 Perspectives on Language Learning and Education"},{"issue":"1","key":"e_1_3_1_58_1","first-page":"47","article-title":"First language grapheme\u2013phoneme transparency effects in adult second-language learning","volume":"27","author":"Ijalba E.","year":"2015","journal-title":"Reading in a Foreign Language"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_59_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1017\/9781139976725.002","volume-title":"Language, culture and education: Challenges of diversity in the United States","author":"Ijalba E.","year":"2019"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_60_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1044\/1058-0360(2013\/11-0055)"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_61_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/01.adt.0000311415.69966.76"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_62_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jecp.2009.02.004"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_63_1","first-page":"3","volume-title":"Clinical approaches to emergent literacy intervention","author":"Justice L. M.","year":"2006"},{"issue":"4","key":"e_1_3_1_64_1","first-page":"8","article-title":"Using shared storybook reading to promote emergent literacy","volume":"34","author":"Justice L. M.","year":"2002","journal-title":"Council for Exceptional Children"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_65_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s11145-007-9092-8"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_66_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1044\/0161-1461(2005\/025)"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_67_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/20445911.2013.799170"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_68_1","first-page":"169","volume-title":"The handbook of bilingualism","author":"Kroll J. F.","year":"2004"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_69_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0022-0965(74)90101-5"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_70_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/15235882.2011.568589"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_71_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1044\/0161-1461(2009\/07-0082)"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_72_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1006\/jecp.1999.2525"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_73_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1044\/2019_JSLHR-L-18-0315"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_74_1","volume-title":"Systematic Analysis of Language Transcripts (SALT), Research Version 2012 [Computer software]","author":"Miller J.","year":"2012"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_75_1","volume-title":"Language essentials for teachers of reading and spelling (LETRS): The speech sounds of English: Phonetics, phonology, and phoneme awareness (Module 2)","author":"Moats L.","year":"2009"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_76_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/15235882.2014.934971"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_77_1","unstructured":"National Reading Panel. (2001). National Institute of Child Health and Human Development. https:\/\/www.nichd.nih.gov\/sites\/default\/files\/publications\/pubs\/nrp\/Documents\/report.pdf"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_78_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s11881-015-0105-z"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_79_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-psych-120710-100431"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_80_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.appdev.2006.12.007"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_81_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/13670069010050010201"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_82_1","volume-title":"Dual language development & disorders","author":"Paradis J.","year":"2011"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_83_1","first-page":"77","volume-title":"Bilingual language development and disorders in Spanish\u2013English speakers","author":"Patterson J. L.","year":"2004"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_84_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(12)60198-6"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_85_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/cogs.12571"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_86_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/0895904805278067"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_87_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s11881-008-0013-6"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_88_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1348\/000712603321661859"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_89_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3102\/00346543075002247"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_90_1","volume-title":"Dyslexia","author":"Snowling M. J.","year":"2001"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_91_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.5871\/jba\/002.043"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_92_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/15235882.2014.893271"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_93_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1598\/RRQ.21.4.1"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_94_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s11145-009-9221-7"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_95_1","volume-title":"A national study of school effectiveness for language minority students' long-term academic achievement","author":"Thomas W. P.","year":"2002"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_96_1","volume-title":"Test of Word Reading Efficiency","author":"Torgesen J. K.","year":"1999"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_97_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s11145-012-9423-2"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_98_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/0012-1649.28.6.1106"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_99_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/13670050.2016.1214104"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_100_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/15235882.2014.893270"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_101_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/S0142716407070233"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_102_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/S0305000900007492"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_103_1","volume-title":"Comprehensive Test of Phonological Processing","author":"Wagner R. K.","year":"2013","edition":"2"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_104_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tics.2008.01.008"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_105_1","volume-title":"Gray Oral Reading Tests\u2013Fourth Edition","author":"Wiederholt J. L.","year":"2001"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_106_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/0022219415619753"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_107_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1044\/1058-0360(2010\/09-0064)"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_108_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-0663.91.3.415"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_109_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0885-2006(05)80059-6"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_110_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-2909.131.1.3"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_111_1","volume-title":"Building academic language. Meeting common core standards across disciplines, Grades 5\u201312","author":"Zwiers J.","year":"2014","edition":"2"}],"container-title":["American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"http:\/\/pubs.asha.org\/doi\/pdf\/10.1044\/2020_AJSLP-19-00175","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,5]],"date-time":"2023-10-05T08:18:55Z","timestamp":1696493935000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"http:\/\/pubs.asha.org\/doi\/10.1044\/2020_AJSLP-19-00175"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2020,8,4]]},"references-count":110,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2020,8,4]]}},"alternative-id":["10.1044\/2020_AJSLP-19-00175"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1044\/2020_ajslp-19-00175","relation":{},"ISSN":["1058-0360","1558-9110"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1058-0360","type":"print"},{"value":"1558-9110","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2020,8,4]]}}}