{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,17]],"date-time":"2026-08-17T22:10:48Z","timestamp":1787004648435,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":29,"publisher":"Institution of Engineering and Technology (IET)","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,6]],"date-time":"2026-01-06T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1767657600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":5,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100012021","name":"Iran University of Medical Sciences","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["1401-2-99-23783"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["1401-2-99-23783"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100012021","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["ietresearch.onlinelibrary.wiley.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["IET Nanobiotechnology"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,1]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>\n                    Herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV\u20101) is responsible for the majority of cold sores, herpetic keratitis\u2010induced blindness, profound skin lesions, and encephalitis that can be fatal. Currently, acyclovir and its derivatives are the first\u2010line therapy for the treatment of HSV\u20101 infection. But there are drawbacks to these treatments: limited efficacy against drug\u2010resistant strains of the virus. Hence, it is of critical importance to explore and develop new antiviral drugs for HSV\u20101. In the present study, we explored whether tungsten oxide nanoparticles (WO\n                    <jats:sub>3<\/jats:sub>\n                    NPs) were potent inhibitors of HSV\u20101 infection as a new class of agent. WO\n                    <jats:sub>3<\/jats:sub>\n                    NPs were characterized by X\u2010ray diffraction (XRD), field\u2010emission scanning electron microscopy (FE\u2010SEM), Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, and zeta potential analysis. Cytotoxicity of Vero cells caused by WO\n                    <jats:sub>3<\/jats:sub>\n                    NPs was determined by methyl thiazolyl tetrazolium (MTT) assay. The quantitative real\u2010time polymerase chain reaction (qRT\u2010PCR) assay was utilized for further verification of the action of the WO\n                    <jats:sub>3<\/jats:sub>\n                    NPs on HSV\u20101. The cytotoxicity test showed low toxicity (&lt;20%) of the rod\u2010shaped WO\n                    <jats:sub>3<\/jats:sub>\n                    NPs when they were assayed on Vero cells at concentrations of up to 700\u2009\u03bcg\/mL. When HSV\u20101 was treated with WO\n                    <jats:sub>3<\/jats:sub>\n                    NPs at 700\u2009\u00b5g\/mL [20% cytotoxicity concentration (CC\n                    <jats:sub>20<\/jats:sub>\n                    ); the concentration causing 20% cytotoxicity, ~80% cell viability] and 1000\u2009\u00b5g\/mL [50% cytotoxicity concentration (CC\n                    <jats:sub>50<\/jats:sub>\n                    ); the concentration causing 50% cytotoxicity, ~50% cell viability] for 3 h, the viral load was significantly reduced, achieving inhibition rates of 99.4% and 99.9%, respectively. Additionally, experiments conducted after HSV\u20101 infection of Vero cells (post\u2010treatment assays) indicated that WO\n                    <jats:sub>3<\/jats:sub>\n                    NPs at concentrations of 250, 500, and 750\u2009\u00b5g\/mL significantly suppressed viral replication, with inhibition rates of 82%, 87.5%, and 96.5%, respectively. WO\n                    <jats:sub>3<\/jats:sub>\n                    NPs have potent inhibitory effects on HSV\u20101. Therefore, they can be considered potential candidates for therapeutic development against infections caused by this virus.\n                  <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1049\/nbt2\/6697780","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,6]],"date-time":"2026-01-06T09:44:28Z","timestamp":1767692668000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Exploring the Antiviral Potential of Tungsten Oxide Nanoparticles Against Herpes Simplex Virus Type 1: A Promising Alternative to Acyclovir"],"prefix":"10.1049","volume":"2026","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4263-1292","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Abdulhussain Kadhim","family":"Jwaziri","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1100-9599","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Pegah","family":"Khales","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5499-8924","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Seyed Jalal","family":"Kiani","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0003-8426-079X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Homayoun","family":"Yaghouti","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6203-8640","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Roghayeh","family":"Babaei","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4155-247X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Zahra","family":"Salavatiha","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1857-0610","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ahmad","family":"Tavakoli","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"265","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,6]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_2_10_1_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1159\/000531348"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_2_2","unstructured":"World Health Organization Herpes Simplex Virus\u2014Key Facts 2025 https:\/\/www.who.int\/news-room\/fact-sheets\/detail\/herpes-simplex-virus."},{"key":"e_1_2_10_3_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms21145026"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_4_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/21505594.2024.2425744"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_5_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms251910602"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_6_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2022.1025605"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_7_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.micpath.2024.107192"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_8_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.29294\/IJASE.5.4.2019.1163-1168"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_9_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s13353-020-00608-x"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_10_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.micpath.2024.106846"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_11_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s13201-023-01938-x"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_12_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s00339-019-2450-y"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_13_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.materresbull.2013.08.028"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_14_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s10854-020-03067-6"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_15_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.20964\/2018.01.32"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_16_2","first-page":"12","article-title":"Obtaining of Films of Tungsten Trioxide (WO3) by Resistive Heating of a Tungsten Filament","volume":"21","author":"D\u00edaz-Reyes J.","year":"2008","journal-title":"Superficies y Vac\u00edo"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_17_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.langmuir.1c02056"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_18_2","first-page":"216","article-title":"A Brief Review on Applications of Tungsten Oxide Nanoparticles","volume":"7","author":"Ishfak A.-N.","year":"2025","journal-title":"Journal of Medicinal and Nanomaterials Chemistry"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_19_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2217\/nnm-2018-0089"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_20_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jviromet.2019.113688"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_21_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apsusc.2015.01.217"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_22_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.optmat.2022.112886"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_23_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.micpath.2024.106571"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_24_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/nano10061017"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_25_2","unstructured":"RenG. 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