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The execution of experiments on de-anonymization attacks within a real Tor network presents considerable challenges, hence the necessity for a simulation environment. However, existing methods for simulating the Tor network are inadequate regarding realism, flexibility, and scalability, with some being prohibitively expensive. In this paper, we develop a lightweight and scalable Tor network simulation environment based on Kubernetes (K8s), employing Docker containers to simulate Tor relays. The results demonstrate that a network of up to a thousand Tor relays can be simulated using just four standard hosts. Furthermore, two de-anonymization attack experiments were conducted within this simulated environment, which exhibited high levels of realism and flexibility. Finally, a hybrid networking approach combining multi-granularity relays was explored to enhance further the balance between realism and cost in Tor network simulations.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1051\/sands\/2024024","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,31]],"date-time":"2024-12-31T19:43:17Z","timestamp":1735674197000},"page":"2024024","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["K8s-enhanced lightweight simulation method for the Tor network"],"prefix":"10.1051","volume":"4","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0007-7367-9252","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Wentao","family":"Huang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Han","family":"Wu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Zeyu","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Xiaqing","family":"Xie","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0001-5464-1335","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Qingfeng","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Xuebin","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Jiapeng","family":"Zhao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Jinqiao","family":"Shi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"250","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,5]]},"reference":[{"key":"R1","first-page":"303","volume":"4","author":"Dingledine","year":"2004","journal-title":"USENIX Security Symposium"},{"key":"R2","unstructured":"Inc., T.T.P. 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