{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,24]],"date-time":"2026-02-24T16:59:22Z","timestamp":1771952362738,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":106,"publisher":"EDP Sciences","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,25]],"date-time":"2025-04-25T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1745539200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":24,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["A&amp;A"],"accepted":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,24]]},"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2025,4]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>The Euclid Wide Survey (EWS) is predicted to find approximately 170 000 galaxy-galaxy strong lenses from its lifetime observation of 14 000 deg<jats:sup>2<\/jats:sup> of the sky. Detecting this many lenses by visual inspection with professional astronomers and citizen scientists alone is infeasible. As a result, machine learning algorithms, particularly convolutional neural networks (CNNs), have been used as an automated method of detecting strong lenses, and have proven fruitful in finding galaxy-galaxy strong lens candidates, such that the usage of CNNs in lens identification has increased. We identify the major challenge to be the automatic detection of galaxy-galaxy strong lenses while simultaneously maintaining a low false positive rate, thus producing a pure and complete sample of strong lens candidates from <jats:italic>Euclid<\/jats:italic> with a limited need for visual inspection. One aim of this research is to have a quantified starting point on the achieved purity and completeness with our current version of CNN-based detection pipelines for the VIS images of EWS. This work is vital in preparing our CNN-based detection pipelines to be able to produce a pure sample of the &gt;100 000 strong gravitational lensing systems widely predicted for <jats:italic>Euclid<\/jats:italic>. We select all sources with VIS <jats:italic>I<\/jats:italic><jats:sub>E<\/jats:sub> &lt; 23 mag from the <jats:italic>Euclid<\/jats:italic> Early Release Observation imaging of the Perseus field. We apply a range of CNN architectures to detect strong lenses in these cutouts. All our networks perform extremely well on simulated data sets and their respective validation sets. However, when applied to real <jats:italic>Euclid<\/jats:italic> imaging, the highest lens purity is just \u223c11%. Among all our networks, the false positives are typically identifiable by human volunteers as, for example, spiral galaxies, multiple sources, and artifacts, implying that improvements are still possible, perhaps via a second, more interpretable lens selection filtering stage. There is currently no alternative to human classification of CNN-selected lens candidates. Given the expected \u223c10<jats:sup>5<\/jats:sup> lensing systems in <jats:italic>Euclid<\/jats:italic>, this implies 10<jats:sup>6<\/jats:sup> objects for human classification, which while very large is not in principle intractable and not without precedent.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1051\/0004-6361\/202453152","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,27]],"date-time":"2025-03-27T19:46:27Z","timestamp":1743104787000},"page":"A214","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":11,"title":["<i>Euclid<\/i>: Searches for strong gravitational lenses using convolutional neural nets in Early Release Observations of the Perseus field"],"prefix":"10.1051","volume":"696","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0003-8138-3348","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"R.","family":"Pearce-Casey","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3724-7694","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"B. C.","family":"Nagam","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4460-7379","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"J.","family":"Wilde","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0000-6049-1073","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"V.","family":"Busillo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0001-3291-5382","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"L.","family":"Ulivi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6102-9526","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"I. T.","family":"Andika","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"A.","family":"Manj\u00f3n-Garc\u00eda","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0006-4479-7017","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"L.","family":"Leuzzi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0229-7189","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"P.","family":"Matavulj","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0517-7943","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"S.","family":"Serjeant","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6408-4181","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"M.","family":"Walmsley","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9654-1711","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"J. A.","family":"Acevedo Barroso","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"C. M.","family":"O\u2019Riordan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"B.","family":"Cl\u00e9ment","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7958-6531","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"C.","family":"Tortora","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5564-3140","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"T. E.","family":"Collett","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0758-6510","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"F.","family":"Courbin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5540-6935","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"R.","family":"Gavazzi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3167-2574","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"R. B.","family":"Metcalf","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"R.","family":"Cabanac","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0509-1776","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"H. M.","family":"Courtois","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7466-1192","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"J.","family":"Crook-Mansour","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2559-408X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"L.","family":"Delchambre","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6150-4112","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"G.","family":"Despali","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0005-3508-2469","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"L. R.","family":"Ecker","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4761-366X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"A.","family":"Franco","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0002-8896-6100","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"P.","family":"Holloway","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3804-2137","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"K.","family":"Jahnke","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3266-2001","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"G.","family":"Mahler","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3948-7621","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"L.","family":"Marchetti","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"A.","family":"Melo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1225-7084","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"M.","family":"Meneghetti","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4552-9808","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"O.","family":"M\u00fcller","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"A. A.","family":"Nucita","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8555-8561","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"J.","family":"Pearson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1391-6854","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"K.","family":"Rojas","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"C.","family":"Scarlata","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2497-6334","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"S.","family":"Schuldt","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6116-2095","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"D.","family":"Sluse","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"S. H.","family":"Suyu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6748-0577","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"M.","family":"Vaccari","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0006-0592-2882","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"S.","family":"Vegetti","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0730-0781","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"A.","family":"Verma","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8554-7248","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"G.","family":"Vernardos","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3278-4607","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"M.","family":"Bolzonella","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9618-2552","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"M.","family":"Kluge","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"T.","family":"Saifollahi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"M.","family":"Schirmer","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9086-6398","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"C.","family":"Stone","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"A.","family":"Paulino-Afonso","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0727-0137","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"L.","family":"Bazzanini","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9346-4477","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"N. B.","family":"Hogg","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1840-0312","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"L. V. E.","family":"Koopmans","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8010-8879","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"S.","family":"Kruk","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"F.","family":"Mannucci","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0304-096X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"J. M.","family":"Bromley","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"A.","family":"D\u00edaz-S\u00e1nchez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0475-008X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"H. J.","family":"Dickinson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4912-9943","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"D. M.","family":"Powell","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7084-487X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"H.","family":"Bouy","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"R.","family":"Laureijs","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3936-0284","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"B.","family":"Altieri","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"A.","family":"Amara","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"S.","family":"Andreon","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8211-1630","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"C.","family":"Baccigalupi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4145-1943","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"M.","family":"Baldi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6967-261X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"A.","family":"Balestra","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8900-0298","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"S.","family":"Bardelli","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"P.","family":"Battaglia","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"D.","family":"Bonino","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"E.","family":"Branchini","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9506-5680","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"M.","family":"Brescia","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4359-8797","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"J.","family":"Brinchmann","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"A.","family":"Caillat","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3399-3574","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"S.","family":"Camera","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3309-7692","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"V.","family":"Capobianco","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"C.","family":"Carbone","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3130-0204","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"J.","family":"Carretero","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"S.","family":"Casas","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"M.","family":"Castellano","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6831-0687","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"G.","family":"Castignani","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3787-4196","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"S.","family":"Cavuoti","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"A.","family":"Cimatti","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"C.","family":"Colodro-Conde","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2508-0046","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"G.","family":"Congedo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"C. J.","family":"Conselice","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"L.","family":"Conversi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Y.","family":"Copin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"M.","family":"Cropper","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"A.","family":"Da Silva","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5887-6799","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"H.","family":"Degaudenzi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6220-9104","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"G.","family":"De Lucia","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4767-2360","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"A. M.","family":"Di Giorgio","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5075-1601","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"J.","family":"Dinis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6533-2810","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"F.","family":"Dubath","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"X.","family":"Dupac","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1128-0664","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"S.","family":"Dusini","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"M.","family":"Farina","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9594-9387","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"S.","family":"Farrens","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6274-5145","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"F.","family":"Faustini","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"S.","family":"Ferriol","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"M.","family":"Frailis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0585-6591","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"E.","family":"Franceschi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3748-5115","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"S.","family":"Galeotta","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"K.","family":"George","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4744-9748","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"W.","family":"Gillard","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4478-1270","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"B.","family":"Gillis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9590-7961","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"C.","family":"Giocoli","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"P.","family":"G\u00f3mez-Alvarez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5688-0663","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"A.","family":"Grazian","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"F.","family":"Grupp","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9648-7260","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"S. V. H.","family":"Haugan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"W.","family":"Holmes","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2960-978X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"I.","family":"Hook","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"F.","family":"Hormuth","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3363-0936","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"A.","family":"Hornstrup","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"P.","family":"Hudelot","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"M.","family":"Jhabvala","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7494-1303","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"B.","family":"Joachimi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"E.","family":"Keih\u00e4nen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0302-5735","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"S.","family":"Kermiche","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2590-1273","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"A.","family":"Kiessling","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9513-7138","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"M.","family":"Kilbinger","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0006-5823-4880","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"B.","family":"Kubik","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2791-2117","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"M.","family":"K\u00fcmmel","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3052-7394","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"M.","family":"Kunz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"H.","family":"Kurki-Suonio","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"D.","family":"Le Mignant","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"S.","family":"Ligori","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4324-7794","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"P. B.","family":"Lilje","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2317-5471","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"V.","family":"Lindholm","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"I.","family":"Lloro","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2593-4355","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"E.","family":"Maiorano","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5758-4658","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"O.","family":"Mansutti","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"O.","family":"Marggraf","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"K.","family":"Markovic","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"M.","family":"Martinelli","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"N.","family":"Martinet","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8850-0303","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"F.","family":"Marulli","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6085-3780","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"R.","family":"Massey","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"E.","family":"Medinaceli","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"S.","family":"Mei","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2283-3084","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"M.","family":"Melchior","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Y.","family":"Mellier","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6870-8900","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"E.","family":"Merlin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"G.","family":"Meylan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"M.","family":"Moresco","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3473-6716","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"L.","family":"Moscardini","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"R.","family":"Nakajima","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"C.","family":"Neissner","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"R. C.","family":"Nichol","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0005-0247-0086","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"S.-M.","family":"Niemi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"J. W.","family":"Nightingale","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"C.","family":"Padilla","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8108-9179","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"S.","family":"Paltani","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4869-3227","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"F.","family":"Pasian","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"K.","family":"Pedersen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"W. J.","family":"Percival","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"V.","family":"Pettorino","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0249-2104","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"S.","family":"Pires","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"G.","family":"Polenta","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"M.","family":"Poncet","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"L. A.","family":"Popa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7085-0412","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"L.","family":"Pozzetti","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"F.","family":"Raison","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"A.","family":"Renzi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"J.","family":"Rhodes","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7020-1172","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"G.","family":"Riccio","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"E.","family":"Romelli","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"M.","family":"Roncarelli","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0238-4047","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"E.","family":"Rossetti","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0378-7032","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"R.","family":"Saglia","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Z.","family":"Sakr","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1198-831X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"A. G.","family":"S\u00e1nchez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7089-4503","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"D.","family":"Sapone","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"B.","family":"Sartoris","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"P.","family":"Schneider","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"T.","family":"Schrabback","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"A.","family":"Secroun","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2907-353X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"G.","family":"Seidel","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"S.","family":"Serrano","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0995-7146","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"C.","family":"Sirignano","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2626-2853","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"G.","family":"Sirri","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1310-8283","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"J.","family":"Skottfelt","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"L.","family":"Stanco","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7443-1047","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"J.","family":"Steinwagner","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"P.","family":"Tallada-Cresp\u00ed","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"I.","family":"Tereno","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2997-4859","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"R.","family":"Toledo-Moreo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"F.","family":"Torradeflot","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3199-0399","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"I.","family":"Tutusaus","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1032-6680","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"E. A.","family":"Valentijn","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"L.","family":"Valenziano","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"T.","family":"Vassallo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"G.","family":"Verdoes Kleijn","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"A.","family":"Veropalumbo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Y.","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8282-2010","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"J.","family":"Weller","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2318-301X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"G.","family":"Zamorani","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5845-8132","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"E.","family":"Zucca","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"C.","family":"Burigana","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"M.","family":"Calabrese","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"A.","family":"Mora","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"M.","family":"P\u00f6ntinen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"V.","family":"Scottez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2642-5707","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"M.","family":"Viel","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8702-7019","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"B.","family":"Margalef-Bentabol","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]}],"member":"250","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,25]]},"reference":[{"key":"R1","first-page":"A14","volume":"697","author":"Acevedo Barroso","year":"2025","journal-title":"A&A"},{"key":"R2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3056","DOI":"10.21105\/joss.03056","volume":"6","author":"Amara","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Open Source Softw."},{"key":"R3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"150","DOI":"10.3847\/1538-4357\/aca66e","volume":"943","author":"Andika","year":"2023","journal-title":"ApJ"},{"key":"R4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"A103","DOI":"10.1051\/0004-6361\/202347332","volume":"678","author":"Andika","year":"2023","journal-title":"A&A"},{"key":"R5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"A33","DOI":"10.1051\/0004-6361\/201322068","volume":"558","author":"Robitaille","year":"2013","journal-title":"A&A"},{"key":"R6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123","DOI":"10.3847\/1538-3881\/aac387","volume":"156","author":"Price-Whelan","year":"2018","journal-title":"AJ"},{"key":"R7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"167","DOI":"10.3847\/1538-4357\/ac7c74","volume":"935","author":"Price-Whelan","year":"2022","journal-title":"ApJ"},{"key":"R8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1099","DOI":"10.1088\/0004-637X\/705\/2\/1099","volume":"705","author":"Auger","year":"2009","journal-title":"ApJ"},{"key":"R9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"189","DOI":"10.1016\/j.dark.2018.11.002","volume":"22","author":"Birrer","year":"2018","journal-title":"Phys. Dark Universe"},{"key":"R10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"964","DOI":"10.1086\/589327","volume":"682","author":"Bolton","year":"2008","journal-title":"ApJ"},{"key":"R11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"233","DOI":"10.3109\/10826089809115863","volume":"33","author":"Buscema","year":"1998","journal-title":"Substance Use Misuse"},{"key":"R12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"A83","DOI":"10.1051\/0004-6361\/202141994","volume":"657","author":"Caminha","year":"2022","journal-title":"A&A"},{"key":"R13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"A163","DOI":"10.1051\/0004-6361\/202038219","volume":"644","author":"Ca\u00f1ameras","year":"2020","journal-title":"A&A"},{"key":"R14","unstructured":"Chen T., Kornblith S., Norouzi M., & Hinton G. 2020a, in Proceedings of Machine Learning Research, 119, Proceedings of the 37th International Conference on Machine Learning, eds. III H. D., & Singh A. (PMLR), 1597"},{"key":"R15","unstructured":"Chen T., Kornblith S., Swersky K., Norouzi M., & Hinton G. E. 2020b, in Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems, 33, eds. Larochelle H., Ranzato M., Hadsell R., Balcan M., & Lin H. (Curran Associates, Inc.), 22243"},{"key":"R16","unstructured":"Christ C., Nord B., Gozman K., & Ottenbreit K. 2020, in American Astronomical Society Meeting Abstracts, 235, 303.03"},{"key":"R17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20","DOI":"10.1088\/0004-637X\/811\/1\/20","volume":"811","author":"Collett","year":"2015","journal-title":"ApJ"},{"key":"R18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"969","DOI":"10.1093\/mnras\/stu1190","volume":"443","author":"Collett","year":"2014","journal-title":"MNRAS"},{"key":"R19","unstructured":"Cropper M., Pottinger S., Niemi S., et al. 2016, in Space Telescopes and Instrumentation 2016: Optical, Infrared, and Millimeter Wave, 9904, eds. MacEwen H. A., Fazio G. G., Lystrup M., Batalha N., Siegler N., & Tong E. C. (SPIE)"},{"key":"R20","first-page":"A6","volume":"697","author":"Cuillandre","year":"2025","journal-title":"A&A"},{"key":"R21","first-page":"A11","volume":"697","author":"Cuillandre","year":"2025","journal-title":"A&A"},{"key":"R22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5263","DOI":"10.1093\/mnras\/stz1288","volume":"487","author":"Davies","year":"2019","journal-title":"MNRAS"},{"key":"R23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.1007\/s10686-012-9306-1","volume":"35","author":"de Jong","year":"2013","journal-title":"Exp. Astron."},{"key":"R24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1815","DOI":"10.1093\/mnras\/stab1716","volume":"506","author":"Denzel","year":"2021","journal-title":"MNRAS"},{"key":"R25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3661","DOI":"10.1093\/mnras\/sty338","volume":"476","author":"Dom\u00ednguez S\u00e1nchez","year":"2018","journal-title":"MNRAS"},{"key":"R26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"A92","DOI":"10.1051\/0004-6361\/202142897","volume":"662","author":"Schirmer","year":"2022","journal-title":"A&A"},{"key":"R27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"A91","DOI":"10.1051\/0004-6361\/202141556","volume":"657","author":"Ilic\u00b4","year":"2022","journal-title":"A&A"},{"key":"R28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"A112","DOI":"10.1051\/0004-6361\/202141938","volume":"662","author":"Scaramella","year":"2022","journal-title":"A&A"},{"key":"R29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"A274","DOI":"10.1051\/0004-6361\/202449609","volume":"689","author":"Aussel","year":"2024","journal-title":"A&A"},{"key":"R30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"A68","DOI":"10.1051\/0004-6361\/202347244","volume":"681","author":"Leuzzi","year":"2024","journal-title":"A&A"},{"key":"R31","first-page":"A5","volume":"697","author":"Castander","year":"2025","journal-title":"A&A"},{"key":"R32","first-page":"A2","volume":"697","author":"Cropper","year":"2025","journal-title":"A&A"},{"key":"R33","first-page":"A3","volume":"697","author":"Jahnke","year":"2025","journal-title":"A&A"},{"key":"R34","first-page":"A1","volume":"697","author":"Mellier","year":"2025","journal-title":"A&A"},{"key":"R35","unstructured":"European Space Agency 2024, Euclid Early Release Observations, https:\/\/doi.org\/10.57780\/esa-qmocze3"},{"key":"R36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"668","DOI":"10.1086\/154215","volume":"204","author":"Faber","year":"1976","journal-title":"ApJ"},{"key":"R37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"500","DOI":"10.1093\/mnras\/stab3386","volume":"510","author":"Gentile","year":"2022","journal-title":"MNRAS"},{"key":"R38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"357","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-020-2649-2","volume":"585","author":"Harris","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"R39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"L33","DOI":"10.3847\/2041-8213\/abf2c7","volume":"911","author":"Hayat","year":"2021","journal-title":"ApJ"},{"key":"R40","unstructured":"He K., Zhang X., Ren S., & Sun J. 2016, in Proceedings of the IEEE conference on computer vision and pattern recognition, 770"},{"key":"R41","unstructured":"He K., Gkioxari G., Doll\u00e1r P., & Girshick R. 2017, in 2017 IEEE International Conference on Computer Vision (ICCV), 2980"},{"key":"R42","unstructured":"He K., Fan H., Wu Y., Xie S., & Girshick R. 2020, in Proceedings of the IEEE\/CVF Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition (CVPR)"},{"key":"R43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hecht-Nielsen R. 1992, in Neural Networks for Perception (Elsevier), 65","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-741252-8.50010-8"},{"key":"R44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Howard A., Sandler M., Chu G., et al. 2019, in Proceedings of the IEEE\/CVF International Conference on Computer Vision, 1314","DOI":"10.1109\/ICCV.2019.00140"},{"key":"R45","unstructured":"Hu J., Shen L., & Sun G. 2018, in Proceedings of the IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition, 7132"},{"key":"R46","unstructured":"Huang G., Liu Z., Van Der Maaten L., & Weinberger K. Q. 2017, in Proceedings of the IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition (CVPR), 4700"},{"key":"R47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"814","DOI":"10.1093\/mnras\/staa2777","volume":"499","author":"Huertas-Company","year":"2020","journal-title":"MNRAS"},{"key":"R48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"441","DOI":"10.1093\/rasti\/rzad028","volume":"2","author":"Huertas-Company","year":"2023","journal-title":"RAS Tech. Instrum."},{"key":"R49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"90","DOI":"10.1109\/MCSE.2007.55","volume":"9","author":"Hunter","year":"2007","journal-title":"Comput. Sci. Eng."},{"key":"R50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100535","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ascom.2021.100535","volume":"38","author":"Jacobs","year":"2022","journal-title":"Astron. Comput."},{"key":"R51","unstructured":"Kingma D. P., & Ba J. 2015, in 3rd International Conference on Learning Representations, ICLR 2015, San Diego, CA, USA, May 7-9, 2015, Conference Track Proceedings, eds. Bengio Y., & LeCun Y."},{"key":"R52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"L51","DOI":"10.1088\/0004-637X\/703\/1\/L51","volume":"703","author":"Koopmans","year":"2009","journal-title":"ApJ"},{"key":"R53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3895","DOI":"10.1093\/mnras\/stx1665","volume":"473","author":"Lanusse","year":"2018","journal-title":"MNRAS"},{"key":"R54","unstructured":"Laureijs R., Amiaux J., Arduini S., et al. 2011, arXiv e-prints [arXiv:1110.3193]"},{"key":"R55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"541","DOI":"10.1162\/neco.1989.1.4.541","volume":"1","author":"LeCun","year":"1989","journal-title":"Neural Computat."},{"key":"R56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"584","DOI":"10.1086\/308963","volume":"536","author":"Lehar","year":"2000","journal-title":"ApJ"},{"key":"R57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"431","DOI":"10.1093\/mnras\/sty1813","volume":"480","author":"Li","year":"2018","journal-title":"MNRAS"},{"key":"R58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"30","DOI":"10.3847\/1538-4357\/ab9dfa","volume":"899","author":"Li","year":"2020","journal-title":"ApJ"},{"key":"R59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16","DOI":"10.3847\/1538-4357\/ac2df0","volume":"923","author":"Li","year":"2021","journal-title":"ApJ"},{"key":"R60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5311","DOI":"10.1093\/mnras\/stad3514","volume":"527","author":"Li","year":"2024","journal-title":"MNRAS"},{"key":"R61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"309","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2966.2004.08449.x","volume":"356","author":"Limousin","year":"2005","journal-title":"MNRAS"},{"key":"R62","unstructured":"Manj\u00f3n-Garc\u00eda A. 2021, PhD thesis, University of Cantabria (Spain)"},{"key":"R63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Masters K. L. 2019, Proc. Int. Astron. Union, 14, 205","DOI":"10.1017\/S1743921319008615"},{"key":"R64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"413","DOI":"10.1051\/0004-6361:20041232","volume":"442","author":"Meneghetti","year":"2005","journal-title":"A&A"},{"key":"R65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"A119","DOI":"10.1051\/0004-6361\/201832797","volume":"625","author":"Metcalf","year":"2019","journal-title":"A&A"},{"key":"R66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1086\/169789","volume":"370","author":"Miralda-Escude","year":"1991","journal-title":"ApJ"},{"key":"R67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"562","DOI":"10.1086\/340655","volume":"573","author":"M\u00f6ller","year":"2002","journal-title":"ApJ"},{"key":"R68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"525","DOI":"10.1093\/mnras\/stae1597","volume":"533","author":"More","year":"2024","journal-title":"MNRAS"},{"key":"R69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4188","DOI":"10.1093\/mnras\/stad1623","volume":"523","author":"Nagam","year":"2023","journal-title":"MNRAS"},{"key":"R70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1426","DOI":"10.1093\/mnras\/stae1882","volume":"533","author":"Nagam","year":"2024","journal-title":"MNRAS"},{"key":"R71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104","DOI":"10.1088\/0004-637X\/734\/2\/104","volume":"734","author":"Newton","year":"2011","journal-title":"ApJ"},{"key":"R72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"51","DOI":"10.3847\/0004-637X\/827\/1\/51","volume":"827","author":"Nord","year":"2016","journal-title":"ApJ"},{"key":"R73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"A145","DOI":"10.1051\/0004-6361\/202453014","volume":"694","author":"O\u2019Riordan","year":"2025","journal-title":"A&A"},{"key":"R74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1129","DOI":"10.1093\/mnras\/stx2052","volume":"472","author":"Petrillo","year":"2017","journal-title":"MNRAS"},{"key":"R75","first-page":"807","volume":"482","author":"Petrillo","year":"2019","journal-title":"MNRAS"},{"key":"R76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3879","DOI":"10.1093\/mnras\/stz189","volume":"484","author":"Petrillo","year":"2019","journal-title":"MNRAS"},{"key":"R77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"68","DOI":"10.3847\/1538-4357\/aaae6a","volume":"856","author":"Pourrahmani","year":"2018","journal-title":"ApJ"},{"key":"R78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"L84","DOI":"10.1093\/mnrasl\/slad074","volume":"524","author":"Powell","year":"2023","journal-title":"MNRAS"},{"key":"R79","unstructured":"Radosavovic I., Johnson J., Xie S., Lo W.-Y., & Dollar P. 2020, in Proceedings of the IEEE\/CVF Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition, 10428"},{"key":"R80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1156","DOI":"10.1093\/mnras\/stac2078","volume":"517","author":"Rezaei","year":"2022","journal-title":"MNRAS"},{"key":"R81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ronneberger O., Fischer P., & Brox T. 2015, in International Conference on Medical image computing and computer-assisted intervention (Springer), 234","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-24574-4_28"},{"key":"R82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"A2","DOI":"10.1051\/0004-6361\/201731201","volume":"611","author":"Schaefer","year":"2018","journal-title":"A&A"},{"key":"R83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1086\/516585","volume":"172","author":"Scoville","year":"2007","journal-title":"ApJS"},{"key":"R84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"48","DOI":"10.3847\/1538-4357\/aa9794","volume":"851","author":"Shu","year":"2017","journal-title":"ApJ"},{"key":"R85","unstructured":"Simonyan K., & Zisserman A. 2015, in 3rd International Conference on Learning Representations, ICLR 2015, San Diego, CA, USA, May 7-9, 2015, Conference Track Proceedings"},{"key":"R86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"L21","DOI":"10.1093\/mnrasl\/slv079","volume":"452","author":"Spiniello","year":"2015","journal-title":"MNRAS"},{"key":"R87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107","DOI":"10.3847\/1538-4357\/ac6d63","volume":"932","author":"Stein","year":"2022","journal-title":"ApJ"},{"key":"R88","unstructured":"Storfer C., Huang X., Gu A., et al. 2022, ApJ, submitted [arXiv:2206:02764]"},{"key":"R89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"201","DOI":"10.1088\/0004-637X\/711\/1\/201","volume":"711","author":"Suyu","year":"2010","journal-title":"ApJ"},{"key":"R90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Szegedy C., Liu Wei, Jia Yangqing, et al. 2015, in Proceedings of the IEEE conference on computer vision and pattern recognition, 1","DOI":"10.1109\/CVPR.2015.7298594"},{"key":"R91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Szegedy C., Vanhoucke V., Ioffe S., Shlens J., & Wojna Z. 2016, in Proceedings of the IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition, 2818","DOI":"10.1109\/CVPR.2016.308"},{"key":"R92","unstructured":"Tan M., & Le Q. 2019, in Proceedings of the 36th International Conference on Machine Learning, 97, eds. Chaudhuri K., & Salakhutdinov R. (PMLR), 6105"},{"key":"R93","unstructured":"Tan M., & Le Q. 2021, in Proceedings of Machine Learning Research, 139, Proceedings of the 38th International Conference on Machine Learning, eds. Meila M., & Zhang T. (PMLR), 10096"},{"key":"R94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2086","DOI":"10.1093\/mnras\/stw036","volume":"457","author":"Teimoorinia","year":"2016","journal-title":"MNRAS"},{"key":"R95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"A4","DOI":"10.1051\/0004-6361\/202142463","volume":"664","author":"Thuruthipilly","year":"2022","journal-title":"A&A"},{"key":"R96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"87","DOI":"10.1086\/341216","volume":"575","author":"Treu","year":"2002","journal-title":"ApJ"},{"key":"R97","unstructured":"van den Oord A., Li Y., & Vinyals O. 2018, arXiv e-prints [arXiv:1807.03748]"},{"key":"R98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"58","DOI":"10.1007\/s11214-024-01087-w","volume":"220","author":"Vegetti","year":"2024","journal-title":"Space Sci. Rev."},{"key":"R99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1581","DOI":"10.1093\/mnras\/stac525","volume":"513","author":"Walmsley","year":"2022","journal-title":"MNRAS"},{"key":"R100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5312","DOI":"10.21105\/joss.05312","volume":"8","author":"Walmsley","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Open Source Softw."},{"key":"R101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3464","DOI":"10.1093\/mnras\/stac562","volume":"512","author":"Wilde","year":"2022","journal-title":"MNRAS"},{"key":"R102","unstructured":"Wilde J. W. 2023, PhD thesis, The Open University, https:\/\/oro.open.ac.uk\/94777\/"},{"key":"R103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2835","DOI":"10.1093\/mnras\/stt1458","volume":"435","author":"Willett","year":"2013","journal-title":"MNRAS"},{"key":"R104","unstructured":"Xie S., Girshick R. B., Doll\u00e1r P., Tu Z., & He K. 2016, in Proceedings of the IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition, 5987"},{"key":"R105","unstructured":"You K., Kou Z., Long M., & Wang J. 2020, in Neural Information Processing Systems"},{"key":"R106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"97","DOI":"10.1088\/0004-637X\/749\/2\/97","volume":"749","author":"Zitrin","year":"2012","journal-title":"ApJ"}],"container-title":["Astronomy &amp; Astrophysics"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.aanda.org\/10.1051\/0004-6361\/202453152\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,25]],"date-time":"2025-04-25T07:53:49Z","timestamp":1745567629000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.aanda.org\/10.1051\/0004-6361\/202453152"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,4]]},"references-count":106,"alternative-id":["aa53152-24"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1051\/0004-6361\/202453152","relation":{},"ISSN":["0004-6361","1432-0746"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0004-6361","type":"print"},{"value":"1432-0746","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,4]]}}}