{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,23]],"date-time":"2026-09-23T21:56:04Z","timestamp":1790200564360,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":99,"publisher":"Georg Thieme Verlag KG","issue":"02","content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Semin Respir Crit Care Med"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,4]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>The prevalence of immunosuppression in the general population has been increasing over time due to a combination of factors, including advances in health care and the emergence of new therapies. Population-based studies show that approximately 3% of the population are prescribed systemic corticosteroid therapy at least once a year. Additionally, the number of immunomodulatory agents, such as biologics and small molecules, continues to grow. The chronic use of systemic corticosteroid and immunomodulating agents has an impact not only on the incidence of patients with pneumonia, but also on their microbiology, clinical presentation, and outcomes. Recent cohort studies show that chronic corticosteroid therapy is one of the leading causes of immunosuppression in patients with nosocomial pneumonia and community-acquired pneumonia requiring hospitalization. Different immunomodulating agents can have varying effects on the immune system; hence, each agent should be individually analyzed when assessing their impact on the immune system. Important factors to consider are the dose and duration of immunosuppressive medications, as well as their indication. Many of the conditions for which corticosteroids and immunomodulators are prescribed also lead to immunosuppression. In the study, we aim to assess the literature on the risk of pneumonia associated with the use of chronic systemic corticosteroid therapy and immunomodulating agents, particularly biologics and small molecules. We also discuss clinical manifestations and management of patients who develop pneumonia while on these therapies.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1055\/a-2767-2557","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,1]],"date-time":"2026-01-01T00:13:12Z","timestamp":1767226392000},"page":"215-227","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Pulmonary Infections in Patients Receiving Corticosteroids and Other Immunomodulators"],"prefix":"10.1055","volume":"47","author":[{"given":"Emily S.","family":"Hartman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of General Internal Medicine, University of Louisville, Louisville, Kentucky, United States"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Rodrigo","family":"Cavallazzi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Pulmonary, Critical Care and Sleep Disorder Medicine, University of Louisville, Louisville, Kentucky, United States"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"194","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,31]]},"reference":[{"issue":"11","key":"ref1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1806","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/cix647","article-title":"Adults hospitalized with pneumonia in the United States: incidence, epidemiology, and mortality","volume":"65","author":"J A Ramirez","year":"2017","journal-title":"Clin Infect Dis"},{"issue":"03","key":"ref2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1008","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chest.2020.03.051","article-title":"The burden of community-acquired pneumonia requiring admission to ICU in the United States","volume":"158","author":"R Cavallazzi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Chest"},{"issue":"01","key":"ref3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajic.2017.08.036","article-title":"Hospital acquired pneumonia prevention initiative-2: incidence of nonventilator hospital-acquired pneumonia in the United States","volume":"46","author":"D Baker","year":"2018","journal-title":"Am J Infect Control"},{"issue":"05","key":"ref4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2314185","DOI":"10.1001\/jamanetworkopen.2023.14185","article-title":"Incidence and outcomes of non-ventilator-associated hospital-acquired pneumonia in 284 US hospitals using electronic surveillance criteria","volume":"6","author":"B E Jones","year":"2023","journal-title":"JAMA Netw Open"},{"issue":"22","key":"ref5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2427","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2016.16226","article-title":"Trend in ventilator-associated pneumonia rates between 2005 and 2013","volume":"316","author":"M L Metersky","year":"2016","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"issue":"10","key":"ref6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1133","DOI":"10.1164\/rccm.201105-0867OC","article-title":"Attributable mortality of ventilator-associated pneumonia: a reappraisal using causal analysis","volume":"184","author":"M Bekaert","year":"2011","journal-title":"Am J Respir Crit Care Med"},{"issue":"10","key":"ref8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"880","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2023.28019","article-title":"Prevalence of immunosuppression among US adults","volume":"331","author":"M L Martinson","year":"2024","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"issue":"11","key":"ref9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"ofad565","DOI":"10.1093\/ofid\/ofad565","article-title":"Community-acquired pneumonia in the immunocompromised host: epidemiology and outcomes","volume":"10","author":"J A Ramirez","year":"2023","journal-title":"Open Forum Infect Dis"},{"issue":"09","key":"ref10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1482","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/ciy723","article-title":"Prevalence and etiology of community-acquired pneumonia in immunocompromised patients","volume":"68","author":"M F Di Pasquale","year":"2019","journal-title":"Clin Infect Dis"},{"issue":"02","key":"ref11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"294","DOI":"10.1002\/acr.21796","article-title":"Prevalence of oral glucocorticoid usage in the United States: a general population perspective","volume":"65","author":"R A Overman","year":"2013","journal-title":"Arthritis Care Res (Hoboken)"},{"issue":"05","key":"ref12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e015237","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjopen-2016-015237","article-title":"Systemic glucocorticoid use in Denmark: a population-based prevalence study","volume":"7","author":"K Laugesen","year":"2017","journal-title":"BMJ Open"},{"issue":"01","key":"ref13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.1111\/cen.14114","article-title":"High prescription rate of oral glucocorticoids in children and adults: a retrospective cohort study from Western Sweden","volume":"92","author":"M J Einarsdottir","year":"2020","journal-title":"Clin Endocrinol (Oxf)"},{"issue":"06","key":"ref14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"655","DOI":"10.4187\/respcare.06314","article-title":"Clinical pharmacology of corticosteroids","volume":"63","author":"D M Williams","year":"2018","journal-title":"Respir Care"},{"issue":"01","key":"ref15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mce.2010.04.005","article-title":"The anti-inflammatory and immunosuppressive effects of glucocorticoids, recent developments and mechanistic insights","volume":"335","author":"A E Coutinho","year":"2011","journal-title":"Mol Cell Endocrinol"},{"issue":"08","key":"ref16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2344","DOI":"10.1002\/1521-4141(2000)30:8<2344::AID-IMMU2344>3.0.CO;2-7","article-title":"Glucocorticoids drive human CD8(+) T cell differentiation towards a phenotype with high IL-10 and reduced IL-4, IL-5 and IL-13 production","volume":"30","author":"D F Richards","year":"2000","journal-title":"Eur J Immunol"},{"issue":"12","key":"ref17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2565","DOI":"10.1111\/cts.13649","article-title":"Prevalence and prescribing patterns of oral corticosteroids in the United States, Taiwan, and Denmark, 2009-2018","volume":"16","author":"B I Wallace","year":"2023","journal-title":"Clin Transl Sci"},{"issue":"05","key":"ref18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1002024","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pmed.1002024","article-title":"Common infections in patients prescribed systemic glucocorticoids in primary care: a population-based cohort study","volume":"13","author":"L Fardet","year":"2016","journal-title":"PLoS Med"},{"issue":"12","key":"ref19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1808","DOI":"10.1007\/s00134-017-4947-1","article-title":"Acute hypoxemic respiratory failure in immunocompromised patients: the Efraim multinational prospective cohort study","volume":"43","author":"E Azoulay","year":"2017","journal-title":"Intensive Care Med"},{"issue":"12","key":"ref20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1364","DOI":"10.1016\/S1473-3099(16)30267-5","article-title":"Global initiative for meticillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus pneumonia (GLIMP): an international, observational cohort study","volume":"16","author":"S Aliberti","year":"2016","journal-title":"Lancet Infect Dis"},{"issue":"01","key":"ref21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"61","DOI":"10.1186\/s13613-025-01462-y","article-title":"Nosocomial lower respiratory tract infections in patients with immunosuppression: a cohort study","volume":"15","author":"L F Reyes","year":"2025","journal-title":"Ann Intensive Care"},{"issue":"24","key":"ref22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2487","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMra032588","article-title":"Pneumocystis pneumonia","volume":"350","author":"C F Thomas Jr","year":"2004","journal-title":"N Engl J Med"},{"key":"ref23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"519","DOI":"10.1038\/334519a0","article-title":"Ribosomal RNA sequence shows Pneumocystis carinii to be a member of the fungi","volume":"334","author":"J C Edman","year":"1988","journal-title":"Nature"},{"issue":"09","key":"ref24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"891","DOI":"10.3201\/eid0809.020096","article-title":"A new name (Pneumocystis jiroveci) for Pneumocystis from humans","volume":"8","author":"J R Stringer","year":"2002","journal-title":"Emerg Infect Dis"},{"issue":"02","key":"ref25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"131","DOI":"10.1203\/00006450-196703000-00007","article-title":"Pneumocystis carinii pneumonitis. A review","volume":"1","author":"J B Robbins","year":"1967","journal-title":"Pediatr Res"},{"issue":"01","key":"ref26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"83","DOI":"10.7326\/0003-4819-80-1-83","article-title":"Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia in the United States. Epidemiologic, diagnostic, and clinical features","volume":"80","author":"P D Walzer","year":"1974","journal-title":"Ann Intern Med"},{"issue":"21","key":"ref27","first-page":"250","article-title":"Pneumocystis pneumonia\u2013Los Angeles","volume":"30","author":"Centers for Disease Control (CDC)","year":"1981","journal-title":"MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep"},{"issue":"05","key":"ref28","first-page":"400","article-title":"Pneumocystis lung disease in homosexual men","volume":"137","year":"1982","journal-title":"West J Med"},{"issue":"34","key":"ref29","first-page":"729","article-title":"Pneumocystis pneumonia\u2013Los Angeles. 1981","volume":"45","author":"Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)","year":"1996","journal-title":"MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep"},{"issue":"10","key":"ref30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1713","DOI":"10.3201\/eid1010.030985","article-title":"Current epidemiology of Pneumocystis pneumonia","volume":"10","author":"A Morris","year":"2004","journal-title":"Emerg Infect Dis"},{"key":"ref31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100400","DOI":"10.1016\/j.lanepe.2022.100400","article-title":"Evolving epidemiology of pneumocystis pneumonia: Findings from a longitudinal population-based study and a retrospective multi-center study in Germany","volume":"18","author":"B Kolbrink","year":"2022","journal-title":"Lancet Reg Health Eur"},{"issue":"09","key":"ref32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1490","DOI":"10.3201\/eid2009.131668","article-title":"Pneumocystis jirovecii pneumonia in patients with or without AIDS, France","volume":"20","author":"A Roux","year":"2014","journal-title":"Emerg Infect Dis"},{"issue":"12","key":"ref33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2417","DOI":"10.3201\/eid2912.230673","article-title":"Invasive nocardia infections across distinct geographic regions, United States","volume":"29","author":"S Gupta","year":"2023","journal-title":"Emerg Infect Dis"},{"issue":"07","key":"ref34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1542","DOI":"10.1183\/09031936.97.10071542","article-title":"Pulmonary infection with Nocardia species: a report of 10 cases and review","volume":"10","author":"R Men\u00e9ndez","year":"1997","journal-title":"Eur Respir J"},{"issue":"01","key":"ref35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"147","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clinimag.2012.04.020","article-title":"Brain abscess mimicking lung cancer metastases; a case report","volume":"37","author":"M Asano","year":"2013","journal-title":"Clin Imaging"},{"issue":"01","key":"ref36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2303","DOI":"10.1080\/22221751.2021.2004864","article-title":"Prevalence and risk factors of active tuberculosis in patients with rheumatic diseases: a multi-center, cross-sectional study in China","volume":"10","author":"X Liu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Emerg Microbes Infect"},{"issue":"03","key":"ref37","first-page":"289","article-title":"Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection in patients with systemic rheumatic diseases. A case-series","volume":"17","author":"B Hern\u00e1ndez-Cruz","year":"1999","journal-title":"Clin Exp Rheumatol"},{"issue":"10","key":"ref38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"945","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-0691.2006.01443.x","article-title":"Severe strongyloidiasis in corticosteroid-treated patients","volume":"12","author":"L Fardet","year":"2006","journal-title":"Clin Microbiol Infect"},{"key":"ref39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"78","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2334-13-78","article-title":"Severe strongyloidiasis: a systematic review of case reports","volume":"13","author":"D Buonfrate","year":"2013","journal-title":"BMC Infect Dis"},{"issue":"01","key":"ref40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.1007\/s10096-005-0070-2","article-title":"Disseminated strongyloidiasis: a retrospective study of clinical course and outcome","volume":"25","author":"C S Lam","year":"2006","journal-title":"Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis"},{"issue":"07","key":"ref43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1703","DOI":"10.1038\/s41375-022-01613-1","article-title":"The 5th edition of the World Health Organization Classification of haematolymphoid tumours: myeloid and histiocytic\/dendritic neoplasms","volume":"36","author":"J D Khoury","year":"2022","journal-title":"Leukemia"},{"issue":"11","key":"ref44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"994","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa022457","article-title":"Imatinib compared with interferon and low-dose cytarabine for newly diagnosed chronic-phase chronic myeloid leukemia","volume":"348","author":"S G O'Brien","year":"2003","journal-title":"N Engl J Med"},{"issue":"14","key":"ref45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1031","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJM200104053441401","article-title":"Efficacy and safety of a specific inhibitor of the BCR-ABL tyrosine kinase in chronic myeloid leukemia","volume":"344","author":"B J Druker","year":"2001","journal-title":"N Engl J Med"},{"key":"ref46"},{"issue":"19","key":"ref47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2275","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.295.19.2275","article-title":"Anti-TNF antibody therapy in rheumatoid arthritis and the risk of serious infections and malignancies: systematic review and meta-analysis of rare harmful effects in randomized controlled trials","volume":"295","author":"T Bongartz","year":"2006","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"issue":"11","key":"ref48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3403","DOI":"10.1002\/art.21386","article-title":"Infections in patients with rheumatoid arthritis treated with biologic agents","volume":"52","author":"J Listing","year":"2005","journal-title":"Arthritis Rheum"},{"issue":"15","key":"ref49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1098","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa011110","article-title":"Tuberculosis associated with infliximab, a tumor necrosis factor alpha-neutralizing agent","volume":"345","author":"J Keane","year":"2001","journal-title":"N Engl J Med"},{"issue":"11","key":"ref50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1942","DOI":"10.1136\/annrheumdis-2013-203407","article-title":"Non-viral opportunistic infections in new users of tumour necrosis factor inhibitor therapy: results of the safety assessment of biologic therapy (SABER) study","volume":"73","author":"J W Baddley","year":"2014","journal-title":"Ann Rheum Dis"},{"issue":"04","key":"ref51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"482","DOI":"10.1136\/annrheumdis-2012-202469","article-title":"Consensus statement on blocking the effects of interleukin-6 and in particular by interleukin-6 receptor inhibition in rheumatoid arthritis and other inflammatory conditions","volume":"72","author":"J S Smolen","year":"2013","journal-title":"Ann Rheum Dis"},{"issue":"12","key":"ref52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2148","DOI":"10.1136\/ard.2011.151092","article-title":"Postmarketing surveillance of tocilizumab for rheumatoid arthritis in Japan: interim analysis of 3881 patients","volume":"70","author":"T Koike","year":"2011","journal-title":"Ann Rheum Dis"},{"issue":"02","key":"ref53","first-page":"318","article-title":"Tocilizumab and the risk of respiratory adverse events in patients with rheumatoid arthritis: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials","volume":"37","author":"Z Geng","year":"2019","journal-title":"Clin Exp Rheumatol"},{"issue":"10","key":"ref54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1158","DOI":"10.1007\/s00134-021-06471-6","article-title":"Diagnosis and treatment of COVID-19 associated pulmonary apergillosis in critically ill patients: results from a European Confederation of Medical Mycology registry","volume":"47","author":"J Prattes","year":"2021","journal-title":"Intensive Care Med"},{"issue":"04","key":"ref55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2002554","DOI":"10.1183\/13993003.02554-2020","article-title":"Confronting and mitigating the risk of COVID-19 associated pulmonary aspergillosis","volume":"56","author":"D Armstrong-James","year":"2020","journal-title":"Eur Respir J"},{"key":"ref56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"32","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mmcr.2021.01.002","article-title":"Tocilizumab administration in COVID-19 patients: water on the fire or gasoline?","volume":"31","author":"C Deana","year":"2021","journal-title":"Med Mycol Case Rep"},{"issue":"04","key":"ref57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"339","DOI":"10.3390\/jof8040339","article-title":"Association of tocilizumab and invasive aspergillosis in critically ill patients with severe COVID-19 pneumonia and acute respiratory distress syndrome","volume":"8","author":"K L Wu","year":"2022","journal-title":"J Fungi (Basel)"},{"issue":"09","key":"ref58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"905","DOI":"10.1080\/02770903.2024.2311236","article-title":"Biologics for asthma and risk of pneumonia","volume":"61","author":"M G Matera","year":"2024","journal-title":"J Asthma"},{"issue":"172","key":"ref59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"230238","DOI":"10.1183\/16000617.0238-2023","article-title":"Biologic agents licensed for severe asthma: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials","volume":"33","author":"C Kyriakopoulos","year":"2024","journal-title":"Eur Respir Rev"},{"issue":"02","key":"ref60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115","DOI":"10.1016\/j.autrev.2017.11.015","article-title":"Clinical and microbiological characteristics of the infections in patients treated with rituximab for autoimmune and\/or malignant hematological disorders","volume":"17","author":"J J Tudesq","year":"2018","journal-title":"Autoimmun Rev"},{"key":"ref61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"203","DOI":"10.1186\/s12916-014-0203-5","article-title":"Incidence and risk of severe infections associated with anti-epidermal growth factor receptor monoclonal antibodies in cancer patients: a systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"12","author":"W X Qi","year":"2014","journal-title":"BMC Med"},{"issue":"S 03","key":"ref62","first-page":"55","article-title":"Risk of infectious complications in hemato-oncological patients treated with kinase inhibitors","volume":"10","author":"M Reinwald","year":"2016","journal-title":"Biomark Insights"},{"issue":"03","key":"ref63","first-page":"976","article-title":"Development of Varicella-Zoster virus infection in patients with chronic myelogenous leukemia treated with imatinib mesylate","volume":"9","author":"G N Mattiuzzi","year":"2003","journal-title":"Clin Cancer Res"},{"issue":"01","key":"ref64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"155","DOI":"10.1080\/14639230500236818","article-title":"Fatal hepatitis B virus reactivation in a chronic myeloid leukemia patient during imatinib mesylate treatment","volume":"47","author":"K Ikeda","year":"2006","journal-title":"Leuk Lymphoma"},{"issue":"10","key":"ref65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"917","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1609324","article-title":"Long-term outcomes of imatinib treatment for chronic myeloid leukemia","volume":"376","author":"A Hochhaus","year":"2017","journal-title":"N Engl J Med"},{"issue":"01","key":"ref66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2011021","DOI":"10.4084\/mjhid.2011.021","article-title":"Low incidence rate of opportunistic and viral infections during imatinib treatment in chronic myeloid leukemia patients in early and late chronic phase","volume":"3","author":"M Breccia","year":"2011","journal-title":"Mediterr J Hematol Infect Dis"},{"issue":"05","key":"ref67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1123","DOI":"10.1182\/blood-2011-08-376087","article-title":"Dasatinib or imatinib in newly diagnosed chronic-phase chronic myeloid leukemia: 2-year follow-up from a randomized phase 3 trial (DASISION)","volume":"119","author":"H M Kantarjian","year":"2012","journal-title":"Blood"},{"key":"ref68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"165","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijid.2014.04.030","article-title":"Pneumocystis jiroveci pneumonia in patients receiving dasatinib treatment","volume":"25","author":"H Chang","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int J Infect Dis"},{"issue":"09","key":"ref69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2217","DOI":"10.1093\/rheumatology\/keaa117","article-title":"Pulmonary adverse events of small molecule JAK inhibitors in autoimmune disease: systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"59","author":"J K Khoo","year":"2020","journal-title":"Rheumatology (Oxford)"},{"issue":"17","key":"ref70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29406","DOI":"10.18632\/oncotarget.14707","article-title":"Incidence and risk of infections associated with EGFR-TKIs in advanced non-small-cell lung cancer: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials","volume":"8","author":"Y Wang","year":"2017","journal-title":"Oncotarget"},{"issue":"03","key":"ref71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"253","DOI":"10.1080\/1744666X.2022.2014323","article-title":"The infection risks of JAK inhibition","volume":"18","author":"M A Adas","year":"2022","journal-title":"Expert Rev Clin Immunol"},{"issue":"07","key":"ref72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0306548","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0306548","article-title":"Cumulative incidence and risk of infection in patients with rheumatoid arthritis treated with Janus kinase inhibitors: a systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"19","author":"K Ouranos","year":"2024","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"issue":"01","key":"ref73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"129","DOI":"10.1186\/s13075-023-03111-w","article-title":"Comparative risk of infections between JAK inhibitors versus TNF inhibitors among patients with rheumatoid arthritis: a cohort study","volume":"25","author":"S R Choi","year":"2023","journal-title":"Arthritis Res Ther"},{"key":"ref74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1483669","DOI":"10.3389\/fphar.2025.1483669","article-title":"Post-marketing safety of anakinra and canakinumab: a real-world pharmacovigilance study based on FDA adverse event reporting system","volume":"16","author":"H Liu","year":"2025","journal-title":"Front Pharmacol"},{"issue":"02","key":"ref75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"859","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.01805-13","article-title":"Predictive value of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) nasal swab PCR assay for MRSA pneumonia","volume":"58","author":"B Dangerfield","year":"2014","journal-title":"Antimicrob Agents Chemother"},{"issue":"05","key":"ref76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"535","DOI":"10.1164\/rccm.201906-1185ST","article-title":"Microbiological laboratory testing in the diagnosis of fungal infections in pulmonary and critical care practice. An official American Thoracic Society Clinical Practice guideline","volume":"200","author":"C A Hage","year":"2019","journal-title":"Am J Respir Crit Care Med"},{"issue":"06","key":"ref77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"913","DOI":"10.1086\/382224","article-title":"False-positive galactomannan Platelia Aspergillus test results for patients receiving piperacillin-tazobactam","volume":"38","author":"C Viscoli","year":"2004","journal-title":"Clin Infect Dis"},{"issue":"02","key":"ref78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"206","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jinf.2017.10.017","article-title":"False positive serum levels of (1-3)-\u00df-D-Glucan after infusion of intravenous immunoglobulins and time to normalisation","volume":"76","author":"M Egger","year":"2018","journal-title":"J Infect"},{"issue":"08","key":"ref79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0045824","DOI":"10.1128\/spectrum.00458-24","article-title":"The diagnostic value of bronchoalveolar lavage fluid metagenomic next-generation sequencing in critically ill patients with respiratory tract infections","volume":"12","author":"X Hu","year":"2024","journal-title":"Microbiol Spectr"},{"issue":"01","key":"ref80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1802442","DOI":"10.1183\/13993003.02442-2018","article-title":"Diagnosis and outcome of acute respiratory failure in immunocompromised patients after bronchoscopy","volume":"54","author":"P R Bauer","year":"2019","journal-title":"Eur Respir J"},{"issue":"01","key":"ref81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"45","DOI":"10.1007\/s00134-012-2687-9","article-title":"Safety of performing fiberoptic bronchoscopy in critically ill hypoxemic patients with acute respiratory failure","volume":"39","author":"C Cracco","year":"2013","journal-title":"Intensive Care Med"},{"issue":"08","key":"ref82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5125","DOI":"10.21037\/jtd-19-3709","article-title":"Bronchoscopy in intubated and non-intubated intensive care unit patients with respiratory failure","volume":"13","author":"S Patolia","year":"2021","journal-title":"J Thorac Dis"},{"issue":"04","key":"ref83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"461","DOI":"10.1097\/00004728-200307000-00001","article-title":"Infectious pulmonary nodules in immunocompromised patients: usefulness of computed tomography in predicting their etiology","volume":"27","author":"T Franquet","year":"2003","journal-title":"J Comput Assist Tomogr"},{"issue":"03","key":"ref84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"608","DOI":"10.2214\/ajr.185.3.01850608","article-title":"Pulmonary infections after bone marrow transplantation: high-resolution CT findings in 111 patients","volume":"185","author":"D L Escuissato","year":"2005","journal-title":"AJR Am J Roentgenol"},{"issue":"06","key":"ref85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1883","DOI":"10.1378\/chest.13-1270","article-title":"Causes and imaging patterns of tree-in-bud opacities","volume":"144","author":"W T Miller Jr","year":"2013","journal-title":"Chest"},{"issue":"01","key":"ref86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"52","DOI":"10.1097\/00004728-199501000-00010","article-title":"Pulmonary nocardiosis: CT findings","volume":"19","author":"H K Yoon","year":"1995","journal-title":"J Comput Assist Tomogr"},{"issue":"09","key":"ref87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1144","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/cir122","article-title":"The diagnostic value of halo and reversed halo signs for invasive mold infections in compromised hosts","volume":"52","author":"S P Georgiadou","year":"2011","journal-title":"Clin Infect Dis"},{"issue":"02","key":"ref88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"256","DOI":"10.1016\/j.semarthrit.2010.11.002","article-title":"Interstitial lung disease induced or exacerbated by TNF-targeted therapies: analysis of 122 cases","volume":"41","author":"R Perez-Alvarez","year":"2011","journal-title":"Semin Arthritis Rheum"},{"issue":"04","key":"ref89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"653","DOI":"10.1093\/rheumatology\/ker290","article-title":"Non-infectious pulmonary toxicity of rituximab: a systematic review","volume":"51","author":"A V Hadjinicolaou","year":"2012","journal-title":"Rheumatology (Oxford)"},{"issue":"23","key":"ref90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2167","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1408440","article-title":"First-line crizotinib versus chemotherapy in ALK-positive lung cancer","volume":"371","author":"B J Solomon","year":"2014","journal-title":"N Engl J Med"},{"issue":"12","key":"ref91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0168465","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0168465","article-title":"Characteristics and prognostic impact of pneumonitis during systemic anti-cancer therapy in patients with advanced non-small-cell lung cancer","volume":"11","author":"D Fujimoto","year":"2016","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"issue":"05","key":"ref92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1188","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chest.2022.05.035","article-title":"Drug-related pneumonitis induced by osimertinib as first-line treatment for epidermal growth factor receptor mutation-positive non-small cell lung cancer: a real-world setting","volume":"162","author":"Y Sato","year":"2022","journal-title":"Chest"},{"issue":"06","key":"ref93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1941","DOI":"10.1007\/s00277-024-05760-6","article-title":"Incidence of pleural effusion with dasatinib and the effect of switching therapy to a different TKI in patients with chronic phase CML","volume":"103","author":"A G Jain","year":"2024","journal-title":"Ann Hematol"},{"issue":"08","key":"ref94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1215","DOI":"10.1097\/01.TP.0000118413.92211.B6","article-title":"Sirolimus-associated pulmonary toxicity","volume":"77","author":"P T Pham","year":"2004","journal-title":"Transplantation"},{"issue":"04","key":"ref95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2000279","DOI":"10.1183\/13993003.00279-2020","article-title":"Pulmonary complications of Bcr-Abl tyrosine kinase inhibitors","volume":"56","author":"J Weatherald","year":"2020","journal-title":"Eur Respir J"},{"issue":"07","key":"ref96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e45","DOI":"10.1164\/rccm.201908-1581ST","article-title":"Diagnosis and treatment of adults with community-acquired pneumonia. An official clinical practice guideline of the American Thoracic Society and Infectious Diseases Society of America","volume":"200","author":"J P Metlay","year":"2019","journal-title":"Am J Respir Crit Care Med"},{"key":"ref97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"154164","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcrc.2022.154164","article-title":"The impacts of bacterial co-infections and secondary bacterial infections on patients with severe influenza pneumonitis admitted to the intensive care units","volume":"72","author":"W C Lee","year":"2022","journal-title":"J Crit Care"},{"issue":"01","key":"ref98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"36","DOI":"10.1177\/1060028020935106","article-title":"Risk factor evaluation for methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus and Pseudomonas aeruginosa in community-acquired pneumonia","volume":"55","author":"P O Lewis","year":"2021","journal-title":"Ann Pharmacother"},{"issue":"04","key":"ref99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"552","DOI":"10.1001\/jamainternmed.2019.7495","article-title":"Empirical anti-MRSA vs standard antibiotic therapy and risk of 30-day mortality in patients hospitalized for pneumonia","volume":"180","author":"B E Jones","year":"2020","journal-title":"JAMA Intern Med"},{"issue":"05","key":"ref100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e61","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/ciw353","article-title":"Management of adults with hospital-acquired and ventilator-associated pneumonia: 2016 Clinical Practice Guidelines by the Infectious Diseases Society of America and the American Thoracic Society","volume":"63","author":"A C Kalil","year":"2016","journal-title":"Clin Infect Dis"},{"issue":"06","key":"ref105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"742","DOI":"10.1136\/ard-2022-223335","article-title":"2022 EULAR recommendations for screening and prophylaxis of chronic and opportunistic infections in adults with autoimmune inflammatory rheumatic diseases","volume":"82","author":"G E Fragoulis","year":"2023","journal-title":"Ann Rheum Dis"},{"issue":"01","key":"ref107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"319","DOI":"10.1182\/hematology.2020000116","article-title":"Practical approach to monitoring and prevention of infectious complications associated with systemic corticosteroids, antimetabolites, cyclosporine, and cyclophosphamide in nonmalignant hematologic diseases","volume":"2020","author":"L Malpica","year":"2020","journal-title":"Hematology (Am Soc Hematol Educ Program)"}],"container-title":["Seminars in Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"http:\/\/www.thieme-connect.de\/products\/ejournals\/pdf\/10.1055\/a-2767-2557.pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,25]],"date-time":"2026-04-25T22:31:29Z","timestamp":1777156289000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"http:\/\/www.thieme-connect.de\/DOI\/DOI?10.1055\/a-2767-2557"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,31]]},"references-count":99,"journal-issue":{"issue":"02","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,25]]},"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,4]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1055\/a-2767-2557","archive":["Portico","CLOCKSS"],"relation":{},"ISSN":["1069-3424","1098-9048"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1069-3424","type":"print"},{"value":"1098-9048","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,31]]}}}