{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,7]],"date-time":"2026-10-07T17:48:29Z","timestamp":1791395309418,"version":"4.3.3"},"reference-count":75,"publisher":"Georg Thieme Verlag KG","issue":"02","funder":[{"name":"U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, National Institutes of Health, National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences","award":["5KL2TR001424-09"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["5KL2TR001424-09"]}]},{"name":"U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, National Institutes of Health, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases","award":["U19AI135964"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["U19AI135964"]}]},{"name":"U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, National Institutes of Health, National Institute on Aging","award":["1R01AG078261-01A1"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["1R01AG078261-01A1"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Semin Respir Crit Care Med"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,4]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>Critically ill, immunocompromised individuals are vulnerable to both common and uncommon etiologies of respiratory infection. Identifying the etiology of infection has therapeutic, prognostic, and public health implications. In some circumstances, immunocompromised patients may be empirically treated with excessively broad antibiotics but ultimately be diagnosed with a common cause of pneumonia. In other circumstances, immunocompromised patients may have a non-specific clinical presentation for severe respiratory failure and be diagnosed with a rare etiology of infection. Because this patient population is at risk for a broad array of infections, it is important to understand the advantages and limitations of sampling and diagnostic techniques. Furthermore, the last decades of research have produced novel methods to enhance diagnostic accuracy. Many of these tests are molecular diagnostics that have high sensitivity, but their clinical impact is unknown, particularly in immunocompromised individuals. In this article we discuss various approaches to sampling and microbiologic diagnosis in immunocompromised individuals with severe respiratory failure.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1055\/a-2808-5317","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,28]],"date-time":"2026-02-28T23:30:16Z","timestamp":1772321416000},"page":"228-237","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Microbiologic Diagnosis of Respiratory Infections in Critically Ill Immunocompromised Patients"],"prefix":"10.1055","volume":"47","author":[{"given":"Yupeng","family":"Liu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Internal Medicine, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, Illinois, United States"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Chiagozie","family":"Pickens","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, Illinois, United States"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"194","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,28]]},"reference":[{"issue":"11","key":"ref1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"ofad565","DOI":"10.1093\/ofid\/ofad565","article-title":"Community-acquired pneumonia in the immunocompromised host: epidemiology and outcomes","volume":"10","author":"J A Ramirez","year":"2023","journal-title":"Open Forum Infect Dis"},{"issue":"01","key":"ref2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"90","DOI":"10.1053\/j.ro.2021.10.009","article-title":"Pneumonia in the immunocompromised host","volume":"57","author":"S Murali","year":"2022","journal-title":"Semin Roentgenol"},{"issue":"02","key":"ref3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"173","DOI":"10.1016\/S2213-2600(18)30345-X","article-title":"Acute respiratory failure in immunocompromised adults","volume":"7","author":"E Azoulay","year":"2019","journal-title":"Lancet Respir Med"},{"issue":"09","key":"ref4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1482","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/ciy723","article-title":"Prevalence and etiology of community-acquired pneumonia in immunocompromised patients","volume":"68","author":"M F Di Pasquale","year":"2019","journal-title":"Clin Infect Dis"},{"issue":"S 03","key":"ref5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S328","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/cix104","article-title":"Colonization density of the upper respiratory tract as a predictor of pneumonia-Haemophilus influenzae, Moraxella catarrhalis, Staphylococcus aureus, and Pneumocystis jirovecii","volume":"64","author":"D E Park","year":"2017","journal-title":"Clin Infect Dis"},{"issue":"09","key":"ref6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1262","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cmi.2021.05.034","article-title":"The association between bacteria colonizing the upper respiratory tract and lower respiratory tract infection in young children: a systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"27","author":"S Claassen-Weitz","year":"2021","journal-title":"Clin Microbiol Infect"},{"issue":"01","key":"ref7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e000593","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjresp-2020-000593","article-title":"Nasopharyngeal density of respiratory viruses in childhood pneumonia in a highly vaccinated setting: findings from a case-control study","volume":"7","author":"M U Bhuiyan","year":"2020","journal-title":"BMJ Open Respir Res"},{"issue":"S 03","key":"ref8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S337","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/cix148","article-title":"Is higher viral load in the upper respiratory tract associated with severe pneumonia? 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