{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,1]],"date-time":"2026-09-01T07:14:02Z","timestamp":1788246842762,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":168,"publisher":"Georg Thieme Verlag KG","issue":"05","content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Semin Neurol"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2022,10]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title><jats:p>The global burden of Parkinson's disease (PD) has increased from 2.5 to 6.1 million since the 1990s. This is expected to rise as the world population ages and lives longer. With the current consensus on the existence of a prediagnostic phase of PD, which can be divided into a preclinical stage and a prodromal stage, we can better define the risk markers and prodromal markers of PD in the broader context of PD pathogenesis. Here, we review this pathogenetic process, and discuss the evidence behind various heritability factors, exposure to pesticides and farming, high dairy consumption, and traumatic brain injuries that have been known to raise PD risk. Physical activity, early active lifestyle, high serum uric acid, caffeine consumption, exposure to tobacco, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, and calcium channel blockers, as well as the Mediterranean and the MIND diets are observed to lower PD risk. This knowledge, when combined with ways to identify at-risk populations and early prodromal PD patients, can help the clinician make practical recommendations. Most importantly, it helps us set the parameters for epidemiological studies and create the paradigms for clinical trials.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1055\/s-0042-1758780","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,26]],"date-time":"2022-11-26T00:08:31Z","timestamp":1669421311000},"page":"626-638","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":52,"title":["Parkinson's Disease: Risk Factor Modification and Prevention"],"prefix":"10.1055","volume":"42","author":[{"given":"Suraj","family":"Rajan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Movement Disorders, Department of Neurology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Bonnie","family":"Kaas","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Movement Disorders, Department of Neurology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"194","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,25]]},"reference":[{"issue":"11","key":"ref1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"939","DOI":"10.1016\/S1474-4422(18)30295-3","article-title":"Global, regional, and national burden of Parkinson's disease, 1990-2016: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2016","volume":"17","author":"E R Dorsey","year":"2018","journal-title":"Lancet Neurol"},{"issue":"01","key":"ref2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.1016\/S0895-4356(01)00425-5","article-title":"Risk tables for parkinsonism and Parkinson's disease","volume":"55","author":"A Elbaz","year":"2002","journal-title":"J Clin Epidemiol"},{"issue":"12","key":"ref3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1591","DOI":"10.1002\/mds.26424","article-title":"MDS clinical diagnostic criteria for Parkinson's disease","volume":"30","author":"R B Postuma","year":"2015","journal-title":"Mov Disord"},{"issue":"07","key":"ref4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"435","DOI":"10.1038\/nrn.2017.62","article-title":"Non-motor features of Parkinson disease","volume":"18","author":"A HV Schapira","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nat Rev Neurosci"},{"issue":"08","key":"ref5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1114","DOI":"10.1002\/mds.26605","article-title":"Neuropathological basis of nonmotor manifestations of Parkinson's disease","volume":"31","author":"C H Adler","year":"2016","journal-title":"Mov Disord"},{"issue":"08","key":"ref6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"933","DOI":"10.1007\/s00702-019-02028-6","article-title":"Neuropathology and pathogenesis of extrapyramidal movement disorders: a critical update-I. 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