{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,25]],"date-time":"2026-02-25T10:15:23Z","timestamp":1772014523629,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":94,"publisher":"Georg Thieme Verlag KG","issue":"01","content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Semin Neurol"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2023,2]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title><jats:p>Drug-induced movement disorders (DIMDs) are most commonly associated with typical and atypical antipsychotics. However, other drugs such as antidepressants, antihistamines, antiepileptics, antiarrhythmics, and gastrointestinal drugs can also cause abnormal involuntary movements. Different types of movement disorders can also occur because of adverse drug reactions. Therefore, the important key to diagnosing DIMDs is a causal relationship between potential offending drugs and the occurrence of abnormal movements. The pathophysiology of DIMDs is not clearly understood; however, many cases of DIMDs are thought to exert adverse mechanisms of action in the basal ganglia. The treatment of some DIMDs is quite challenging, and removing the offending drugs may not be possible in some conditions such as withdrawing antipsychotics in the patient with partially or uncontrollable neuropsychiatric conditions. Future research is needed to understand the mechanism of DIMDs and the development of drugs with better side-effect profiles. This article reviews the phenomenology, diagnostic criteria, pathophysiology, and management of DIMDs.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1055\/s-0043-1763510","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,25]],"date-time":"2023-02-25T00:00:20Z","timestamp":1677283220000},"page":"035-047","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":11,"title":["Drug-Induced Movement Disorders"],"prefix":"10.1055","volume":"43","author":[{"given":"Sanjay","family":"Pandey","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neurology, Amrita Hospital, Faridabad, Delhi National Capital Region, India"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Yuvadee","family":"Pitakpatapee","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Neurology, Department of Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Mahidol University, Siriraj Hospital, Thailand"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Weerawat","family":"Saengphatrachai","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Neurology, Department of Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Mahidol University, Siriraj Hospital, Thailand"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Anjali","family":"Chouksey","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neurology, Shri Narayani Hospital and Research Centre, Vellore, Tamil Nadu, India"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Madhavi","family":"Tripathi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Nuclear Medicine, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, New Delhi, India"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Prachaya","family":"Srivanitchapoom","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Neurology, Department of Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Mahidol University, Siriraj Hospital, Thailand"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"194","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,24]]},"reference":[{"issue":"06","key":"ref1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"415","DOI":"10.1177\/0897190007310514","article-title":"Drug-induced movement disorders","volume":"20","author":"K L Claxton","year":"2007","journal-title":"J Pharm Pract"},{"issue":"09","key":"ref2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0257129","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0257129","article-title":"Antipsychotic-induced extrapyramidal side effects: a systematic review and meta-analysis of observational studies","volume":"16","author":"T Ali","year":"2021","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"ref3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"593143","DOI":"10.3389\/fneur.2020.593143","article-title":"Prevalence of extrapyramidal symptoms in in-patients with severe mental illnesses: focus on parkinsonism","volume":"11","author":"B Roiter","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front Neurol"},{"issue":"03","key":"ref4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"391","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psc.2016.04.003","article-title":"Drug-induced extrapyramidal syndromes: implications for contemporary practice","volume":"39","author":"S N Caroff","year":"2016","journal-title":"Psychiatr Clin North Am"},{"issue":"09","key":"ref5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"880","DOI":"10.1016\/S1474-4422(19)30152-8","article-title":"Recent developments in drug-induced movement disorders: a mixed picture","volume":"18","author":"S A Factor","year":"2019","journal-title":"Lancet Neurol"},{"issue":"S 01","key":"ref7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S108","DOI":"10.1016\/S1353-8020(13)70027-0","article-title":"Acute and subacute drug-induced movement disorders","volume":"20","author":"P R Burkhard","year":"2014","journal-title":"Parkinsonism Relat Disord"},{"issue":"05","key":"ref8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"745","DOI":"10.1007\/s00415-008-0789-7","article-title":"Movement disorders at a university hospital emergency room: an analysis of clinical pattern and etiology","volume":"255","author":"J H Yoon","year":"2008","journal-title":"J Neurol"},{"issue":"01","key":"ref9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"133","DOI":"10.1007\/s10072-018-3601-1","article-title":"Movement disorders in emergency settings: a prospective study","volume":"40","author":"C Dallocchio","year":"2019","journal-title":"Neurol Sci"},{"issue":"06","key":"ref10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"449","DOI":"10.3949\/ccjm.75.6.449","article-title":"Movement disorder emergencies in the elderly: recognizing and treating an often-iatrogenic problem","volume":"75","author":"B Tousi","year":"2008","journal-title":"Cleve Clin J Med"},{"issue":"08","key":"ref11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"739","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-8749.2009.03598.x","article-title":"A prospective study of acute movement disorders in children","volume":"52","author":"R C Dale","year":"2010","journal-title":"Dev Med Child Neurol"},{"issue":"10","key":"ref12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1163","DOI":"10.1176\/ajp.137.10.1163","article-title":"Tardive dyskinesia: summary of a Task Force Report of the American Psychiatric Association. By the task force on late neurological effects of antipsychotic drugs","volume":"137","year":"1980","journal-title":"Am J Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref13","first-page":"803","volume-title":"Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, DSM-IV TR","author":"American Psychiatric Association","year":"2000"},{"key":"ref14","volume-title":"Diagnostic and Statistical Manual","author":"American Psychiatric Association","year":"2013","edition":"5th ed."},{"issue":"05","key":"ref15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1139","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pnpbp.2007.03.015","article-title":"Venlafaxine and tardive blepharospasm: a case report","volume":"31","author":"Y Lee","year":"2007","journal-title":"Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry"},{"issue":"10","key":"ref16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"973","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pmrj.2010.05.007","article-title":"A rare case of tardive dyskinesia and akathisia induced by citalopram","volume":"2","author":"P Birthi","year":"2010","journal-title":"PM R"},{"issue":"05","key":"ref17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"723","DOI":"10.1097\/JCP.0b013e3182686619","article-title":"Duloxetine-associated tardive dyskinesia resolved with fluvoxamine: a case report","volume":"32","author":"Y Albayrak","year":"2012","journal-title":"J Clin Psychopharmacol"},{"key":"ref18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"490","DOI":"10.1192\/bjp.128.5.490","article-title":"Dyskinesias associated with tricyclic antidepressants","volume":"128","author":"W E Fann","year":"1976","journal-title":"Br J Psychiatry"},{"issue":"11","key":"ref19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1297","DOI":"10.1176\/ajp.134.11.1297","article-title":"A case of oral dyskinesia associated with imipramine treatment","volume":"134","author":"J J Dekret","year":"1977","journal-title":"Am J Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref20","volume-title":"Tardive dyskinesia","author":"O JJ Wain","year":"2017"},{"key":"ref21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jns.2018.02.007","article-title":"Tardive dyskinesia: epidemiology","volume":"389","author":"A D'Abreu","year":"2018","journal-title":"J Neurol Sci"},{"key":"ref22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"48","DOI":"10.5334\/tohm.554","article-title":"Clinical spectrum of drug-induced movement disorders: a study of 97 patients","volume":"10","author":"A Chouksey","year":"2020","journal-title":"Tremor Other Hyperkinet Mov (N Y)"},{"key":"ref23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"132","DOI":"10.1136\/pgmj.2010.103234","article-title":"Spectrum of tardive syndromes: clinical recognition and management","volume":"87","author":"R Bhidayasiri","year":"2011","journal-title":"Postgrad Med J"},{"issue":"S 01","key":"ref24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S113","DOI":"10.1016\/S1353-8020(13)70028-2","article-title":"Tardive dyskinesia syndromes: current concepts","volume":"20","author":"C C Aquino","year":"2014","journal-title":"Parkinsonism Relat Disord"},{"key":"ref25","first-page":"751","article-title":"4 Cases of facio-bucco-linguo-masticatory dyskinesis of prolonged development following treatment with neuroleptics","volume":"100","author":"J Sigwald","year":"1959","journal-title":"Rev Neurol (Paris)"},{"issue":"01","key":"ref26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1600-0447.1964.tb05731.x","article-title":"Neurological symptoms in pharmacotherapy of psychoses","volume":"40","author":"A Faurbye","year":"1964","journal-title":"Acta Psychiatr Scand"},{"key":"ref27","first-page":"e1","article-title":"An update on tardive dyskinesia: from phenomenology to treatment","volume":"3","author":"O Waln","year":"2013","journal-title":"Tremor Other Hyperkinet Mov (N Y)"},{"issue":"04","key":"ref28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"177","DOI":"10.4103\/jpp.JPP_32_17","article-title":"Levosulpiride-induced movement disorders","volume":"8","author":"S Choudhury","year":"2017","journal-title":"J Pharmacol Pharmacother"},{"issue":"10","key":"ref29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1136","DOI":"10.1177\/1060028015594812","article-title":"Extrapyramidal reactions associated with serotonergic antidepressants","volume":"49","author":"J M Hawthorne","year":"2015","journal-title":"Ann Pharmacother"},{"issue":"01","key":"ref30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"32","DOI":"10.1186\/s12888-018-1999-x","article-title":"Prevalence and management practice of first generation antipsychotics induced side effects among schizophrenic patients at Amanuel Mental Specialized Hospital, central Ethiopia: cross-sectional study","volume":"19","author":"Y S Wubeshet","year":"2019","journal-title":"BMC Psychiatry"},{"issue":"03","key":"ref31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"293","DOI":"10.4103\/0253-7176.207332","article-title":"Adverse drug reactions and their impact on quality of life in patients on antipsychotic therapy at a tertiary care center in Delhi","volume":"39","author":"S Chawla","year":"2017","journal-title":"Indian J Psychol Med"},{"issue":"02","key":"ref33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"239","DOI":"10.1038\/clpt.1981.154","article-title":"A method for estimating the probability of adverse drug reactions","volume":"30","author":"C A Naranjo","year":"1981","journal-title":"Clin Pharmacol Ther"},{"issue":"09","key":"ref34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3303","DOI":"10.4103\/jfmpc.jfmpc_831_21","article-title":"Agreement between WHO-UMC causality scale and the Naranjo algorithm for causality assessment of adverse drug reactions","volume":"10","author":"A K Shukla","year":"2021","journal-title":"J Family Med Prim Care"},{"issue":"01","key":"ref35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117","DOI":"10.4103\/0253-7613.125192","article-title":"A study of agreement between the Naranjo algorithm and WHO-UMC criteria for causality assessment of adverse drug reactions","volume":"46","author":"M N Belhekar","year":"2014","journal-title":"Indian J Pharmacol"},{"issue":"05","key":"ref36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"188","DOI":"10.1097\/WNF.0000000000000363","article-title":"The Naranjo scale and tardive syndromes, a historical perspective","volume":"42","author":"J H Friedman","year":"2019","journal-title":"Clin Neuropharmacol"},{"issue":"06","key":"ref37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"461","DOI":"10.3109\/15563650.2013.811588","article-title":"Misuse of the Naranjo adverse drug reaction probability scale in toxicology","volume":"51","author":"D Seger","year":"2013","journal-title":"Clin Toxicol (Phila)"},{"issue":"05","key":"ref38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"525","DOI":"10.1097\/00007611-199005000-00011","article-title":"Neurologic approach to drug-induced movement disorders: a study of 125 patients","volume":"83","author":"L G Miller","year":"1990","journal-title":"South Med J"},{"key":"ref39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"120192","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jns.2022.120192","article-title":"Drug-induced tremor, clinical features, diagnostic approach and management","volume":"435","author":"J F Baizabal-Carvallo","year":"2022","journal-title":"J Neurol Sci"},{"issue":"02","key":"ref40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"208","DOI":"10.1017\/S109285292000200X","article-title":"Differentiating tardive dyskinesia: a video-based review of antipsychotic-induced movement disorders in clinical practice","volume":"27","author":"R A Hauser","year":"2022","journal-title":"CNS Spectr"},{"issue":"03","key":"ref41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"180","DOI":"10.2165\/00002018-199716030-00004","article-title":"Drug-induced movement disorders","volume":"16","author":"F J Jim\u00e9nez-Jim\u00e9nez","year":"1997","journal-title":"Drug Saf"},{"issue":"08","key":"ref42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"857","DOI":"10.1177\/0269881115593893","article-title":"Rating scales to measure side effects of antipsychotic medication: a systematic review","volume":"29","author":"A M van Strien","year":"2015","journal-title":"J Psychopharmacol"},{"key":"ref43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1600-0447.1987.tb10566.x","article-title":"The UKU side effect rating scale. A new comprehensive rating scale for psychotropic drugs and a cross-sectional study of side effects in neuroleptic-treated patients","volume":"334","author":"O Lingjaerde","year":"1987","journal-title":"Acta Psychiatr Scand Suppl"},{"issue":"05","key":"ref44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"650","DOI":"10.1192\/bjp.166.5.650","article-title":"A self-rating scale for measuring neuroleptic side-effects. Validation in a group of schizophrenic patients","volume":"166","author":"J C Day","year":"1995","journal-title":"Br J Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1600-0447.1970.tb02066.x","article-title":"A rating scale for extrapyramidal side effects","volume":"212","author":"G M Simpson","year":"1970","journal-title":"Acta Psychiatr Scand Suppl"},{"issue":"01","key":"ref46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2377-5-5","article-title":"Validity of Simpson-Angus Scale (SAS) in a naturalistic schizophrenia population","volume":"5","author":"S Janno","year":"2005","journal-title":"BMC Neurol"},{"issue":"02","key":"ref47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"183","DOI":"10.1002\/gps.2091","article-title":"Validity and reliability of the Simpson-Angus Scale (SAS) in drug induced parkinsonism in the elderly","volume":"24","author":"W Knol","year":"2009","journal-title":"Int J Geriatr Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"672","DOI":"10.1192\/bjp.154.5.672","article-title":"A rating scale for drug-induced akathisia","volume":"154","author":"T R Barnes","year":"1989","journal-title":"Br J Psychiatry"},{"issue":"04","key":"ref49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"365","DOI":"10.1177\/0269881103174013","article-title":"The Barnes Akathisia rating scale\u2013revisited","volume":"17","author":"T R Barnes","year":"2003","journal-title":"J Psychopharmacol"},{"issue":"01","key":"ref50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.1016\/j.euroneuro.2004.05.003","article-title":"Actometry and Barnes akathisia rating scale in neuroleptic-induced akathisia","volume":"15","author":"S Janno","year":"2005","journal-title":"Eur Neuropsychopharmacol"},{"issue":"11","key":"ref51","first-page":"1172","article-title":"How to examine patients using the Abnormal Involuntary Movement Scale","volume":"39","author":"M R Munetz","year":"1988","journal-title":"Hosp Community Psychiatry"},{"issue":"04","key":"ref52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"511","DOI":"10.1590\/S0100-879X2003000400014","article-title":"Reliability and clinical utility of a Portuguese version of the Abnormal Involuntary Movements Scale (AIMS) for tardive dyskinesia in Brazilian patients","volume":"36","author":"H Tonelli","year":"2003","journal-title":"Braz J Med Biol Res"},{"issue":"04","key":"ref53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"244","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1600-0447.1993.tb03366.x","article-title":"The St. Hans Rating Scale for extrapyramidal syndromes: reliability and validity","volume":"87","author":"J Gerlach","year":"1993","journal-title":"Acta Psychiatr Scand"},{"issue":"06","key":"ref54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1354","DOI":"10.1002\/mds.10255","article-title":"Metric characteristics of the drug-induced extrapyramidal symptoms scale (DIEPSS): a practical combined rating scale for drug-induced movement disorders","volume":"17","author":"J H Kim","year":"2002","journal-title":"Mov Disord"},{"issue":"08","key":"ref55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1226","DOI":"10.1002\/mds.22532","article-title":"Recurrent acute dystonic reaction and oculogyric crisis despite withdrawal of dopamine receptor blocking drugs","volume":"24","author":"S A Schneider","year":"2009","journal-title":"Mov Disord"},{"issue":"12","key":"ref56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1359","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2044.2009.06068.x","article-title":"Naloxone-responsive acute dystonia and parkinsonism following general anaesthesia","volume":"64","author":"I A Iselin-Chaves","year":"2009","journal-title":"Anaesthesia"},{"key":"ref57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"514","DOI":"10.5334\/tohm.392","article-title":"Acute dystonic reaction following general anesthetic agent use","volume":"7","author":"J Jitprapaikulsan","year":"2017","journal-title":"Tremor Other Hyperkinet Mov (N Y)"},{"issue":"11","key":"ref58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"973","DOI":"10.1177\/1060028016657553","article-title":"Neuroleptic malignant syndrome","volume":"50","author":"D J Pileggi","year":"2016","journal-title":"Ann Pharmacother"},{"key":"ref59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.1016\/S0079-6123(06)62006-2","article-title":"Neuroleptic malignant syndrome and serotonin syndrome","volume":"162","author":"K Nisijima","year":"2007","journal-title":"Prog Brain Res"},{"issue":"05","key":"ref60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"429","DOI":"10.1002\/pds.1937","article-title":"Neuroleptic malignant syndrome and its controversies","volume":"19","author":"B Margeti\u0107","year":"2010","journal-title":"Pharmacoepidemiol Drug Saf"},{"key":"ref61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"663","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-444-64074-1.00039-2","article-title":"Neuroleptic malignant syndrome and serotonin syndrome","volume":"157","author":"L M Tormoehlen","year":"2018","journal-title":"Handb Clin Neurol"},{"issue":"11","key":"ref62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1112","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMra041867","article-title":"The serotonin syndrome","volume":"352","author":"E W Boyer","year":"2005","journal-title":"N Engl J Med"},{"issue":"15","key":"ref63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2691","DOI":"10.1002\/mds.23255","article-title":"Dyskinesia-hyperpyrexia syndrome: another Parkinson's disease emergency","volume":"25","author":"S Gil-Navarro","year":"2010","journal-title":"Mov Disord"},{"issue":"11","key":"ref64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1106","DOI":"10.1016\/S1474-4422(10)70218-0","article-title":"Levodopa-induced dyskinesias in patients with Parkinson's disease: filling the bench-to-bedside gap","volume":"9","author":"P Calabresi","year":"2010","journal-title":"Lancet Neurol"},{"key":"ref65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"120012","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jns.2021.120012","article-title":"The etiopathogenetic and pathophysiological spectrum of parkinsonism","volume":"433","author":"M Bologna","year":"2022","journal-title":"J Neurol Sci"},{"issue":"03","key":"ref66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"453","DOI":"10.1002\/mds.870130313","article-title":"Cinnarizine-induced parkinsonism: ten years later","volume":"13","author":"J F Mart\u00ed-Mass\u00f3","year":"1998","journal-title":"Mov Disord"},{"issue":"02","key":"ref67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"169","DOI":"10.1136\/jnnp-2017-315873","article-title":"Early-onset drug-induced parkinsonism after exposure to offenders implies nigrostriatal dopaminergic dysfunction","volume":"89","author":"S J Chung","year":"2018","journal-title":"J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry"},{"issue":"06","key":"ref68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"849","DOI":"10.1016\/0278-5846(88)90081-4","article-title":"Noradrenergic effects in tardive dyskinesia, akathisia and pseudoparkinsonism via the limbic system and basal ganglia","volume":"12","author":"R Wilbur","year":"1988","journal-title":"Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"87","DOI":"10.1159\/000446441","article-title":"Clonidine use in psychiatry: panacea or panache","volume":"98","author":"A Naguy","year":"2016","journal-title":"Pharmacology"},{"issue":"05","key":"ref70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"368","DOI":"10.1136\/practneurol-2020-002566","article-title":"Tardive syndromes","volume":"20","author":"E Mulroy","year":"2020","journal-title":"Pract Neurol"},{"issue":"09","key":"ref71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"541","DOI":"10.1177\/070674370505000907","article-title":"Tardive dyskinesia in the era of typical and atypical antipsychotics. Part 1: Pathophysiology and mechanisms of induction","volume":"50","author":"H C Margolese","year":"2005","journal-title":"Can J Psychiatry"},{"issue":"03","key":"ref72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"266","DOI":"10.1007\/s002590000460","article-title":"The clinical benefit of imaging striatal dopamine transporters with [123I]FP-CIT SPET in differentiating patients with presynaptic parkinsonism from those with other forms of parkinsonism","volume":"28","author":"J Booij","year":"2001","journal-title":"Eur J Nucl Med"},{"key":"ref73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S68","DOI":"10.4103\/0028-3886.226460","article-title":"Neuroimaging in Parkinsonian disorders","volume":"66","author":"M Tripathi","year":"2018","journal-title":"Neurol India"},{"issue":"S 07","key":"ref74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S28","DOI":"10.1002\/mds.10575","article-title":"DAT imaging in drug-induced and psychogenic parkinsonism","volume":"18","author":"E Tolosa","year":"2003","journal-title":"Mov Disord"},{"issue":"04","key":"ref75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"510","DOI":"10.1002\/mds.20748","article-title":"[123I]-FP\/CIT SPECT imaging for distinguishing drug-induced parkinsonism from Parkinson's disease","volume":"21","author":"M Lorberboym","year":"2006","journal-title":"Mov Disord"},{"issue":"13","key":"ref76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1825","DOI":"10.1002\/mds.22098","article-title":"[123I]FP-CIT SPET imaging in drug-induced Parkinsonism","volume":"23","author":"M Tinazzi","year":"2008","journal-title":"Mov Disord"},{"key":"ref77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2377-7-27","article-title":"Meta-analysis of the literature on diagnostic accuracy of SPECT in parkinsonian syndromes","volume":"7","author":"A M Vlaar","year":"2007","journal-title":"BMC Neurol"},{"issue":"S 04","key":"ref78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S38","DOI":"10.1016\/S1353-8020(09)70833-8","article-title":"Dopaminergic function and progression of Parkinson's disease: PET findings","volume":"15","author":"G Biju","year":"2009","journal-title":"Parkinsonism Relat Disord"},{"issue":"03","key":"ref79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"556","DOI":"10.1007\/s00259-009-1289-4","article-title":"Clinical features and 123I-FP-CIT SPECT imaging in drug-induced parkinsonism and Parkinson's disease","volume":"37","author":"F J Diaz-Corrales","year":"2010","journal-title":"Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging"},{"key":"ref80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"552","DOI":"10.1212\/WNL.43.3_Part_1.552","article-title":"Nigral dysfunction in drug-induced parkinsonism: an 18F-dopa PET study","volume":"43","author":"D J Burn","year":"1993","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"issue":"06","key":"ref81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0157410","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0157410","article-title":"Persistent drug-induced parkinsonism in patients with normal dopamine transporter imaging","volume":"11","author":"J Y Hong","year":"2016","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"ref82","first-page":"66","article-title":"Evaluation of 99mTc-TRODAT SPECT in the first year of onset of Parkinsonism","volume":"34","author":"S Sagar","year":"2019","journal-title":"Indian J Nucl Med"},{"issue":"09","key":"ref83","first-page":"1453","article-title":"Test\/retest reproducibility of iodine-123-betaCIT SPECT brain measurement of dopamine transporters in Parkinson's patients","volume":"38","author":"J P Seibyl","year":"1997","journal-title":"J Nucl Med"},{"issue":"05","key":"ref84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"258","DOI":"10.1159\/000115640","article-title":"Diagnostic value of 123I-ioflupane and 123I-iodobenzamide SPECT scans in 248 patients with parkinsonian syndromes","volume":"59","author":"A M Vlaar","year":"2008","journal-title":"Eur Neurol"},{"issue":"05","key":"ref85","first-page":"276","article-title":"Diagnostic accuracy of 123 I-FP-CIT SPECT in diagnosing drug-induced parkinsonism: a prospective study","volume":"28","author":"J Olivares Romero","year":"2013","journal-title":"Neurologia"},{"issue":"01","key":"ref86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125","DOI":"10.1055\/s-0038-1677050","article-title":"Movement disorders emergencies","volume":"39","author":"S Rajan","year":"2019","journal-title":"Semin Neurol"},{"issue":"05","key":"ref87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"650","DOI":"10.1080\/j.1440-1614.1999.00630.x","article-title":"Electroconvulsive treatment of neuroleptic malignant syndrome: a review and report of cases","volume":"33","author":"J N Trollor","year":"1999","journal-title":"Aust N Z J Psychiatry"},{"issue":"06","key":"ref88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"870","DOI":"10.1176\/ajp.2007.164.6.870","article-title":"Neuroleptic malignant syndrome","volume":"164","author":"J R Strawn","year":"2007","journal-title":"Am J Psychiatry"},{"issue":"01","key":"ref89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.1177\/1941875210386491","article-title":"Neuroleptic malignant syndrome: a review for neurohospitalists","volume":"1","author":"B D Berman","year":"2011","journal-title":"Neurohospitalist"},{"issue":"05","key":"ref90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"567","DOI":"10.1001\/archneurol.2011.84","article-title":"Movement disorders emergencies. Part 1: Hypokinetic disorders","volume":"68","author":"B J Robottom","year":"2011","journal-title":"Arch Neurol"},{"issue":"02","key":"ref91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"303","DOI":"10.1016\/j.amjoto.2014.11.006","article-title":"Acute vocal fold dystonic reaction to propofol: a case report","volume":"36","author":"R C Steckelberg","year":"2015","journal-title":"Am J Otolaryngol"},{"key":"ref92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.5334\/tohm.641","article-title":"Rhabdomyolysis associated with severe levodopa-induced dyskinesia in Parkinson's disease: a report of two cases and literature review","volume":"11","author":"Y Pitakpatapee","year":"2021","journal-title":"Tremor Other Hyperkinet Mov (N Y)"},{"issue":"03","key":"ref93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"138","DOI":"10.1038\/ncpgasthep0442","article-title":"Drug insight: from disturbed motility to disordered movement \u2013 a review of the clinical benefits and medicolegal risks of metoclopramide","volume":"3","author":"P J Pasricha","year":"2006","journal-title":"Nat Clin Pract Gastroenterol Hepatol"},{"issue":"14","key":"ref94","first-page":"4746","article-title":"Pathophysiology and management of Akathisia 70 years after the introduction of the chlorpromazine, the first antipsychotic","volume":"25","author":"N Zareifopoulos","year":"2021","journal-title":"Eur Rev Med Pharmacol Sci"},{"issue":"04","key":"ref95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1694","DOI":"10.1007\/s13311-020-00898-3","article-title":"Management of tardive syndromes: medications and surgical treatments","volume":"17","author":"S A Factor","year":"2020","journal-title":"Neurotherapeutics"},{"key":"ref96","first-page":"13","article-title":"Valbenazine and deutetrabenazine for tardive dyskinesia","volume":"15","author":"K TB Touma","year":"2018","journal-title":"Innov Clin Neurosci"}],"container-title":["Seminars in Neurology"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"http:\/\/www.thieme-connect.de\/products\/ejournals\/pdf\/10.1055\/s-0043-1763510.pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2023,4,12]],"date-time":"2023-04-12T13:06:33Z","timestamp":1681304793000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"http:\/\/www.thieme-connect.de\/DOI\/DOI?10.1055\/s-0043-1763510"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,2]]},"references-count":94,"journal-issue":{"issue":"01","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,4,3]]},"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2023,2]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1055\/s-0043-1763510","archive":["Portico","CLOCKSS"],"relation":{},"ISSN":["0271-8235","1098-9021"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0271-8235","type":"print"},{"value":"1098-9021","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,2]]}}}