{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,7]],"date-time":"2026-04-07T13:04:21Z","timestamp":1775567061815,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":64,"publisher":"AIP Publishing","issue":"4","funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100020302","name":"Materials Research Science and Engineering Center, University of California, San Diego","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["DMR-2309083"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["DMR-2309083"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100020302","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["pubs.aip.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":[],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,1]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>Nanoindentation is vital for probing mechanical properties at the nano- to micron-scale. However, traditional grid-based workflows are inefficient for targeting specific microstructural features. An automated nanoindentation framework is presented, designed to support machine-learning-enabled experimentation. The system operates in three modes: standard automation, feature-based indentation via image-to-coordinate mapping, and large-scale indentation with full alignment along the x, y, and z axes. Precise indentation is achieved by directly aligning the sample beneath the indenter, thereby mitigating initial travel-distance errors (2.5\u20136\u00a0\u03bcm). Pixel-to-micron calibration enables accurate navigation between optical images and physical indentation locations. Benchmark demonstrations illustrate phase-specific and orientation-guided indentation enabled by Self-Organizing Feature Maps and macro imaging. The framework enhances precision, reduces user intervention, and enables efficient targeted characterization of complex materials. By establishing a direct interface between nanoindentation systems and Python-based automation frameworks, the approach can be adapted across most existing nanoindenter platforms. This work lays the foundation for next-generation autonomous mechanical testing of microstructurally complex materials.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1063\/5.0307893","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,7]],"date-time":"2026-04-07T12:25:46Z","timestamp":1775564746000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1063\/aip-crossmark-policy-page","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Automation of nanoindentation targeting control using machine vision"],"prefix":"10.1063","volume":"97","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1723-4711","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Vivek","family":"Chawla","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Tennessee 1 , Knoxville, Tennessee 37996,","place":["USA"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7029-3561","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Dayakar","family":"Penumadu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Tennessee 1 , Knoxville, Tennessee 37996,","place":["USA"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5354-6152","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sergei","family":"Kalinin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Tennessee 2 , Knoxville, Tennessee 37996,","place":["USA"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"317","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,7]]},"reference":[{"issue":"1","key":"2026040708254068600_c1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1557\/jmr.2004.19.1.3","article-title":"Measurement of hardness and elastic modulus by instrumented indentation: Advances in understanding and refinements to methodology","volume":"19","year":"2004","journal-title":"J.\u00a0Mater. Res."},{"issue":"6","key":"2026040708254068600_c2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1564","DOI":"10.1557\/jmr.1992.1564","article-title":"An improved technique for determining hardness and elastic modulus using load and displacement sensing indentation experiments","volume":"7","year":"1992","journal-title":"J.\u00a0Mater. Res."},{"issue":"3","key":"2026040708254068600_c3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"613","DOI":"10.1557\/jmr.1992.0613","article-title":"On the generality of the relationship among contact stiffness, contact area, and elastic modulus during indentation","volume":"7","year":"1992","journal-title":"J.\u00a0Mater. Res."},{"issue":"3","key":"2026040708254068600_c4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"653","DOI":"10.1557\/jmr.2009.0096","article-title":"Critical issues in making small-depth mechanical property measurements by nanoindentation with continuous stiffness measurement","volume":"24","year":"2009","journal-title":"J.\u00a0Mater. Res."},{"key":"2026040708254068600_c5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"97","DOI":"10.1098\/rspa.1993.0050","article-title":"Indentation of a power law creeping solid","volume":"441","year":"1993","journal-title":"Proc. R. Soc. London, Ser. A"},{"issue":"9","key":"2026040708254068600_c6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1028","DOI":"10.1016\/j.matchar.2009.04.008","article-title":"Creep effects in nanoindentation of hydrated phases of cement pastes","volume":"60","year":"2009","journal-title":"Mater. Charact."},{"issue":"7","key":"2026040708254068600_c7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"074021","DOI":"10.1088\/0022-3727\/41\/7\/074021","article-title":"Nanoindentation and the dynamic characterization of viscoelastic solids","volume":"41","year":"2008","journal-title":"J.\u00a0Phys. D: Appl. Phys."},{"key":"2026040708254068600_c8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"178","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compositesa.2018.06.003","article-title":"Viscoelastic response of carbon fibre reinforced polymer during push-out tests","volume":"112","year":"2018","journal-title":"Composites, Part A"},{"issue":"10","key":"2026040708254068600_c9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"108705","DOI":"10.1063\/1.4824710","article-title":"Indenter materials for high-temperature nanoindentation","volume":"84","year":"2013","journal-title":"Rev. Sci. Instrum."},{"issue":"2","key":"2026040708254068600_c10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"517","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jmps.2012.09.009","article-title":"Measurement of power-law creep parameters by instrumented indentation methods","volume":"61","year":"2013","journal-title":"J.\u00a0Mech. Phys. Solids"},{"key":"2026040708254068600_c11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"128","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijsolstr.2015.10.029","article-title":"A methodology for obtaining plasticity characteristics of metallic coatings via instrumented indentation","volume":"80","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Solids Struct."},{"issue":"1\u20132","key":"2026040708254068600_c12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"131","DOI":"10.1007\/s00707-009-0222-z","article-title":"Size effects in nanoindentation: An experimental and analytical study","volume":"211","year":"2010","journal-title":"Acta Mech."},{"issue":"10","key":"2026040708254068600_c13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"321","DOI":"10.3390\/cryst7100321","article-title":"Review of nanoindentation size effect: Experiments and atomistic simulation","volume":"7","year":"2017","journal-title":"Crystals"},{"issue":"7","key":"2026040708254068600_c14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1373","DOI":"10.1557\/s43578-022-00541-1","article-title":"Accurate measurement of thin film mechanical properties using nanoindentation","volume":"37","year":"2022","journal-title":"J.\u00a0Mater. Res."},{"issue":"11","key":"2026040708254068600_c15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2945","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1151-2916.1991.tb06871.x","article-title":"Comment on \u2018Direct observation and analysis of indentation cracking in glasses and ceramics\u2019","volume":"74","year":"1991","journal-title":"J.\u00a0Am. Ceram. Soc."},{"key":"2026040708254068600_c16","unstructured":"K. E.\n            Johanns\n          , \u201cA study of indentation cracking in brittle materials using cohesive zone finite elements,\u201d Ph.D. dissertation (University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN, 2014)."},{"key":"2026040708254068600_c17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"108311","DOI":"10.1016\/j.matdes.2019.108311","article-title":"Fracture toughness determination of fused silica by cube corner indentation cracking and pillar splitting","volume":"186","year":"2020","journal-title":"Mater. Des."},{"issue":"16\u201318","key":"2026040708254068600_c18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1928","DOI":"10.1080\/14786435.2014.913110","article-title":"A novel pillar indentation splitting test for measuring fracture toughness of thin ceramic coatings","volume":"95","year":"2015","journal-title":"Philos. Mag."},{"key":"2026040708254068600_c19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"118777","DOI":"10.1016\/j.carbon.2023.118777","article-title":"Splitting mode-I fracture toughness of carbon fibers using nanoindentation","volume":"219","year":"2024","journal-title":"Carbon"},{"key":"2026040708254068600_c20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"108162","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijmecsci.2023.108162","article-title":"Deep learning based nanoindentation method for evaluating mechanical properties of polymers","volume":"246","year":"2023","journal-title":"Int. J. Mech. Sci."},{"key":"2026040708254068600_c21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"51","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compscitech.2014.09.016","article-title":"A review of recent research on nanoindentation of polymer composites and their constituents","volume":"105","year":"2014","journal-title":"Compos. Sci. Technol."},{"issue":"3","key":"2026040708254068600_c22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"525","DOI":"10.1016\/j.polymertesting.2013.02.001","article-title":"Nanoindentation and nanoscratching responses of PEEK based hybrid composites reinforced with short carbon fibers and nano-silica","volume":"32","year":"2013","journal-title":"Polym. Test."},{"key":"2026040708254068600_c23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"133","DOI":"10.1177\/10996362231157002","article-title":"The combined effect of temperature and seawater on the compression properties of carbon fiber vinyl ester composites for sandwich structures","volume":"26","year":"2023","journal-title":"J.\u00a0Sandwich Struct. Mater."},{"key":"2026040708254068600_c24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"110131","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compscitech.2023.110131","article-title":"Degradation in interfacial shear strength of carbon fiber\/vinyl ester composites due to long-term exposure to seawater using push-out tests","volume":"241","year":"2023","journal-title":"Compos. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"2026040708254068600_c25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"425","DOI":"10.1016\/j.carbon.2019.05.038","article-title":"Interface graphitization of carbon\u2013carbon composites by nanoindentation","volume":"150","year":"2019","journal-title":"Carbon"},{"issue":"1","key":"2026040708254068600_c26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"30","DOI":"10.1088\/0508-3443\/13\/1\/307","article-title":"Analysis of the stress\u2013strain relationships in reactor grade graphite","volume":"13","year":"1962","journal-title":"Br. J. Appl. Phys."},{"issue":"12","key":"2026040708254068600_c27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4459","DOI":"10.1016\/j.carbon.2012.05.024","article-title":"A comparison of the effect of graphitization on microstructures and properties of polyacrylonitrile and mesophase pitch-based carbon fibers","volume":"50","year":"2012","journal-title":"Carbon"},{"key":"2026040708254068600_c28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"114530","DOI":"10.1016\/j.microrel.2022.114530","article-title":"Determining adhesion of critical interfaces in microelectronics\u2014A reverse finite element modelling approach based on nanoindentation","volume":"133","year":"2022","journal-title":"Microelectron. Reliab."},{"issue":"1","key":"2026040708254068600_c29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"103","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mee.2004.01.043","article-title":"Mechanical characterization of low-k dielectric materials using nanoindentation","volume":"75","year":"2004","journal-title":"Microelectron. Eng."},{"issue":"3","key":"2026040708254068600_c30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"552","DOI":"10.1557\/jmr.2006.0081","article-title":"Piezoelectric nanoindentation","volume":"21","year":"2006","journal-title":"J.\u00a0Mater. Res."},{"issue":"1\u20132","key":"2026040708254068600_c31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"340","DOI":"10.1016\/j.msea.2006.10.056","article-title":"Nanoindentation of lead-free solders in microelectronic packaging","volume":"448","year":"2007","journal-title":"Mater. Sci. Eng., A"},{"key":"2026040708254068600_c32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"728","DOI":"10.1007\/s00419-005-0394-5","article-title":"Nanoindentation: A suitable tool to determine local mechanical properties in microelectronic packages and materials?","volume":"74","year":"2005","journal-title":"Arch. Appl. Mech."},{"issue":"12","key":"2026040708254068600_c33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"654","DOI":"10.3390\/mi9120654","article-title":"Nanoindentation of soft biological materials","volume":"9","year":"2018","journal-title":"Micromachines"},{"issue":"2","key":"2026040708254068600_c34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"222","DOI":"10.1002\/jbm.a.20096","article-title":"Nanoindentation of soft hydrated materials for application to vascular tissues","volume":"69A","year":"2004","journal-title":"J.\u00a0Biomed. Mater. Res., Part A"},{"issue":"6","key":"2026040708254068600_c35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"064303","DOI":"10.1063\/1.2937199","article-title":"The bone diagnostic instrument II: Indentation distance increase","volume":"79","year":"2008","journal-title":"Rev. Sci. Instrum."},{"key":"2026040708254068600_c36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"113643","DOI":"10.1016\/j.matdes.2025.113643","article-title":"Thin film combinatorial sputtering of TaTiHfZr refractory compositionally complex alloys for rapid materials discovery","volume":"250","year":"2025","journal-title":"Mater. Des."},{"key":"2026040708254068600_c37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"58","DOI":"10.1016\/j.actamat.2016.11.046","article-title":"Strengthening mechanisms in equiatomic ultrafine grained AlCoCrCuFeNi high-entropy alloy studied by micro- and nanoindentation methods","volume":"125","year":"2017","journal-title":"Acta Mater."},{"key":"2026040708254068600_c38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.matchar.2013.01.009","article-title":"Depth-sensing indentation of nanomaterials and nanostructures","volume":"78","year":"2013","journal-title":"Mater. Charact."},{"issue":"21","key":"2026040708254068600_c39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"212102","DOI":"10.1103\/physrevb.76.212102","article-title":"Relationship between direct and converse piezoelectric effect in a nanoscale electromechanical contact","volume":"76","year":"2007","journal-title":"Phys. Rev. B"},{"issue":"5","key":"2026040708254068600_c40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"101107","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cossms.2023.101107","article-title":"High-speed nanoindentation mapping: A review of recent advances and applications","volume":"27","year":"2023","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Solid State Mater. Sci."},{"issue":"2","key":"2026040708254068600_c41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"420","DOI":"10.3390\/met13020420","article-title":"High-throughput investigation of multiscale deformation mechanism in additively manufactured Ni superalloy","volume":"13","year":"2023","journal-title":"Metals"},{"key":"2026040708254068600_c42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1323","DOI":"10.1039\/D5DD00033E","article-title":"Building workflows for interactive human-in-the-loop automated experiment (HAE) in STEM-EELS","volume":"4","year":"2025","journal-title":"Digital Discovery"},{"key":"2026040708254068600_c43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"6361","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-020-19907-2","article-title":"Exploring physics of ferroelectric domain walls via Bayesian analysis of atomically resolved STEM data","volume":"11","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"issue":"9","key":"2026040708254068600_c44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"13492","DOI":"10.1021\/acsnano.2c05303","article-title":"Bayesian active learning for scanning probe microscopy: From Gaussian processes to hypothesis learning","volume":"16","year":"2022","journal-title":"ACS Nano"},{"key":"2026040708254068600_c45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"341","DOI":"10.1038\/s42256-022-00460-0","article-title":"Experimental discovery of structure\u2013property relationships in ferroelectric materials via active learning","volume":"4","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nature Machine Intelligence"},{"issue":"5","key":"2026040708254068600_c46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"054105","DOI":"10.1063\/5.0005323","article-title":"Bayesian inference in band excitation scanning probe microscopy for optimal dynamic model selection in imaging","volume":"128","year":"2020","journal-title":"J.\u00a0Appl. Phys."},{"issue":"25","key":"2026040708254068600_c47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"255701","DOI":"10.1088\/0957-4484\/20\/25\/255701","article-title":"Adaptive probe trajectory scanning probe microscopy for multiresolution measurements of interface geometry","volume":"20","year":"2009","journal-title":"Nanotechnology"},{"issue":"24","key":"2026040708254068600_c48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3409","DOI":"10.1177\/00219983211015721","article-title":"Thermo-mechanical characterization of discontinuous recycled\/repurposed carbon fiber reinforced thermoplastic organosheet composites","volume":"55","year":"2021","journal-title":"J.\u00a0Compos. Mater."},{"issue":"4","key":"2026040708254068600_c49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"101091","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cossms.2023.101091","article-title":"Machine learning aided nanoindentation: A review of the current state and future perspectives","volume":"27","year":"2023","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Solid State Mater. Sci."},{"key":"2026040708254068600_c50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.matdes.2020.108705","article-title":"Classification of mechanism of reinforcement in the fiber-matrix interface: Application of Machine Learning on nanoindentation data","year":"2020","journal-title":"Material Design"},{"key":"2026040708254068600_c51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"103847","DOI":"10.1016\/j.coal.2021.103847","article-title":"High-speed nanoindentation mapping of organic matter-rich rocks: A critical evaluation by correlative imaging and machine learning data analysis","volume":"247","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Coal Geol."},{"key":"2026040708254068600_c52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"735","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cma.2019.01.005","article-title":"Predicting the effective mechanical property of heterogeneous materials by image based modeling and deep learning","volume":"347","year":"2019","journal-title":"Comput. Methods Appl. Mech. Eng."},{"key":"2026040708254068600_c53","article-title":"Nanomechanical properties of thermal arc sprayed coating using continuous stiffness measurement and artificial neural network","year":"2019","journal-title":"Surf. Coat. Technol."},{"key":"2026040708254068600_c54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"7052","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1922210117","article-title":"Extraction of mechanical properties of materials through deep learning from instrumented indentation","volume":"117","year":"2020","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci."},{"key":"2026040708254068600_c55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"13189","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-019-49780-z","article-title":"An investigation of nanomechanical properties of materials using nanoindentation and artificial neural network","volume":"9","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"2026040708254068600_c56","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"103522","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mechmat.2020.103522","article-title":"A machine learning based approach for determining the stress-strain relation of grey cast iron from nanoindentation","volume":"148","year":"2020","journal-title":"Mech. Mater."},{"key":"2026040708254068600_c57","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"7748","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ceramint.2021.11.322","article-title":"Predicting the mechanical properties of Cu\u2013Al2O3 nanocomposites using machine learning and finite element simulation of indentation experiments","volume":"48","year":"2022","journal-title":"Ceram. Int."},{"key":"2026040708254068600_c58","article-title":"PyAutoGUI: Cross-platform GUI automation for Python","year":"2024","journal-title":"Software Package"},{"key":"2026040708254068600_c59","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"118","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mechmat.2018.06.004","article-title":"Experimental and computational issues for automated extraction of plasticity parameters from spherical indentation","volume":"124","year":"2018","journal-title":"Mech. Mater."},{"key":"2026040708254068600_c60","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"5755","DOI":"10.1016\/S1359-6454(98)00226-2","article-title":"A new method for estimating residual stresses by instrumented sharp indentation","volume":"46","year":"1998","journal-title":"Acta Mater."},{"key":"2026040708254068600_c61","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"031321","DOI":"10.1063\/5.0259851","article-title":"Materials discovery in combinatorial and high-throughput synthesis and processing: A new Frontier for SPM","volume":"12","year":"2025","journal-title":"Appl. Phys. Rev."},{"key":"2026040708254068600_c62","article-title":"POLARIS: Perovskite optimization using LLM-assisted refinement and intelligent screening","year":"2025","journal-title":"ChemRxiv"},{"key":"2026040708254068600_c63","article-title":"LLM-guided ligand design for controlling nanoscopic morphology of CsPbBr3 perovskite nanocrystals","year":"2025","journal-title":"ChemRxiv"},{"key":"2026040708254068600_c64","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"121904","DOI":"10.1063\/5.0272287","article-title":"Causal discovery from data assisted by large language models","volume":"127","year":"2025","journal-title":"Appl. Phys. Lett."}],"container-title":["Review of Scientific Instruments"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/pubs.aip.org\/aip\/rsi\/article-pdf\/doi\/10.1063\/5.0307893\/20967399\/043901_1_5.0307893.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"syndication"},{"URL":"https:\/\/pubs.aip.org\/aip\/rsi\/article-pdf\/doi\/10.1063\/5.0307893\/20967399\/043901_1_5.0307893.pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,7]],"date-time":"2026-04-07T12:25:48Z","timestamp":1775564748000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/pubs.aip.org\/rsi\/article\/97\/4\/043901\/3386364\/Automation-of-nanoindentation-targeting-control"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,1]]},"references-count":64,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,1]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1063\/5.0307893","relation":{},"ISSN":["0034-6748","1089-7623"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0034-6748","type":"print"},{"value":"1089-7623","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published-other":{"date-parts":[[2026,4]]},"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,1]]},"article-number":"043901"}}