{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,11]],"date-time":"2026-08-11T15:00:16Z","timestamp":1786460416469,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":48,"publisher":"AIP Publishing","issue":"8","funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000936","name":"Gordon and Betty Moore Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["GBMF7939"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["GBMF7939"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000936","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000893","name":"Simons Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["034079"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["034079"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000893","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"National Science Foundation","award":["AST-1207892"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["AST-1207892"]}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000001","name":"National Science Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["AST-1440338"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["AST-1440338"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000001","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"World Premier International Research Center Initiative"},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000925","name":"John Templeton Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["58724"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["58724"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000925","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"JSPS KAKENHI","award":["18H05539"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["18H05539"]}]},{"name":"JSPS KAKENHI","award":["19H00674"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["19H00674"]}]},{"name":"JSPS Core-to-Core Program","award":["JPJSCCA20200003"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["JPJSCCA20200003"]}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000015","name":"U.S. Department of Energy","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["DE-AC02-05CH11231"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["DE-AC02-05CH11231"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000015","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["pubs.aip.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":[],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,1]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>High-sensitivity measurements of the cosmic microwave background (CMB) polarization are critical for constraining cosmological parameters and probing the physics of the early universe. Simons Array is an experiment designed to observe the CMB polarization at 90 and 150\u00a0GHz from the Atacama Desert in Chile, at an altitude of 5200\u00a0m. Its deployed receivers, polarbear-2a and polarbear-2b, employed over 15\u2009000 transition-edge sensors (TESs) with dichroic, dual-polarization pixels using lenslet-coupled sinuous antennas. The readout of thousands of cryogenic detectors was accomplished using 40\u00d7 frequency-domain multiplexing. In this work, we characterize the achieved on-sky sensitivity of the Simons Array detectors. First, we characterize detector properties to model TES responsivity, estimate the receivers\u2019 optical throughput, and model the readout noise contributions to the total noise of operating detectors. Then, we report the calibrated detector sensitivity and compare it to predictions based on the evaluated detector, readout, and optical properties. We find that the on-sky noise equivalent temperature of the Simons Array detectors is higher than the design goal and show that this is a consequence of unexpectedly low optical throughput and elevated readout noise. Our results show that the performance of polarbear-2a can be predicted with an updated model of detector sensitivity, incorporating data from field measurements. However, we find that polarbear-2b had further degraded performance that may be primarily due to increased susceptibility to radio frequency interference. The methods described in this investigation can be directly applied to the characterization of other instruments that employ TES arrays and\/or frequency-domain multiplexing.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1063\/5.0319093","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,11]],"date-time":"2026-08-11T12:50:35Z","timestamp":1786452635000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1063\/aip-crossmark-policy-page","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Performance characterization of the transition-edge sensor array, readout system, and optical coupling of the Simons Array cosmic microwave background experiment"],"prefix":"10.1063","volume":"97","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4101-2513","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"N.","family":"Farias","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"University of California 1 , Berkeley, California 94720,","place":["USA"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3850-9553","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"T.","family":"Adkins","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of California 1 , Berkeley, California 94720,","place":["USA"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5884-911X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"M.","family":"Chu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of California 2 , San Diego, California 92093,","place":["USA"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3407-5305","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"K.","family":"Arnold","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of California 2 , San Diego, California 92093,","place":["USA"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1623-5651","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"D. R.","family":"Barron","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of New Mexico 3 , Albuquerque, New Mexico 87131,","place":["USA"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0008-4312-6814","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"B.","family":"Bixler","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of California 2 , San Diego, California 92093,","place":["USA"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5068-1295","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"K. T.","family":"Crowley","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of California 2 , San Diego, California 92093,","place":["USA"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5105-9473","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"T.","family":"de Haan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Particle and Nuclear Studies (IPNS), High Energy Accelerator Research Organization (KEK) 4 , Tsukuba,","place":["Japan"]},{"name":"International Center for Quantum-Field Measurement Systems for Studies of the Universe and Particles (QUP-WPI), High Energy Accelerator Research Organization (KEK) 5 , Tsukuba,","place":["Japan"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1211-7850","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"T.","family":"Fujino","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"International Center for Quantum-Field Measurement Systems for Studies of the Universe and Particles (QUP-WPI), High Energy Accelerator Research Organization (KEK) 5 , Tsukuba,","place":["Japan"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1443-1082","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"M.","family":"Hasegawa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Particle and Nuclear Studies (IPNS), High Energy Accelerator Research Organization (KEK) 4 , Tsukuba,","place":["Japan"]},{"name":"International Center for Quantum-Field Measurement Systems for Studies of the Universe and Particles (QUP-WPI), High Energy Accelerator Research Organization (KEK) 5 , Tsukuba,","place":["Japan"]},{"name":"School of High Energy Accelerator Science, The Graduate University for Advanced Studies 6 , Kanagawa,","place":["Japan"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6830-8309","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"M.","family":"Hazumi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Particle and Nuclear Studies (IPNS), High Energy Accelerator Research Organization (KEK) 4 , Tsukuba,","place":["Japan"]},{"name":"Center for High Energy and High Field Physics (CHiP), National Central University 7 , Taoyuan City,","place":["Taiwan"]},{"name":"Istituto Nazionale di Fisica Nucleare (INFN) Sezione di Ferrara 8 , Ferrara,","place":["Italy"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3336-134X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"H.","family":"Hirose","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Particle and Nuclear Studies (IPNS), High Energy Accelerator Research Organization (KEK) 4 , Tsukuba,","place":["Japan"]},{"name":"Yokohama National University 9 , Yokohama,","place":["Japan"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0008-3216-4022","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"J.","family":"Ito","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Westmont College 10 , Santa Barbara, California 93108,","place":["USA"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"D.","family":"Kaneko","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"International Center for Quantum-Field Measurement Systems for Studies of the Universe and Particles (QUP-WPI), High Energy Accelerator Research Organization (KEK) 5 , Tsukuba,","place":["Japan"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3118-5514","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"B.","family":"Keating","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of California 2 , San Diego, California 92093,","place":["USA"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3106-3218","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"A. 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R.","family":"Raum","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of California 1 , Berkeley, California 94720,","place":["USA"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0008-6007-9781","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"M.","family":"Russell","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of California 2 , San Diego, California 92093,","place":["USA"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0005-4168-2858","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"S.","family":"Shayan Arani","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of California 2 , San Diego, California 92093,","place":["USA"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6830-1537","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"P.","family":"Siritanasak","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Astronomical Research Institute of Thailand 13 , Chiang Mai,","place":["Thailand"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9461-7519","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"S.","family":"Takakura","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"The University of Tokyo 14 , Tokyo,","place":["Japan"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8705-9624","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"S.","family":"Takatori","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Research Institute for Interdisciplinary Science (RIIS), Okayama University 15 , Okayama,","place":["Japan"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5109-9379","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"B.","family":"Westbrook","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of California 1 , Berkeley, California 94720,","place":["USA"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"317","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,11]]},"reference":[{"key":"2026081108503185700_c1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2058","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevLett.78.2058","volume":"78","year":"1997","journal-title":"Phys. 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SPIE"},{"key":"2026081108503185700_c7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"84521S","DOI":"10.1117\/12.926354","volume":"8452","year":"2012","journal-title":"Proc. SPIE"},{"key":"2026081108503185700_c8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"66","DOI":"10.1063\/1.2981555","volume":"1040","year":"2008","journal-title":"AIP Conf. Proc."},{"key":"2026081108503185700_c9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1070842","DOI":"10.1117\/12.2313916","volume":"10708","year":"2018","journal-title":"Proc. SPIE"},{"key":"2026081108503185700_c10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"63","DOI":"10.1007\/b12169","volume-title":"Cryogenic Particle Detection","author":"Enss","year":"2005"},{"key":"2026081108503185700_c11","unstructured":"A.\n            Suzuki\n          , \u201cMultichroic bolometric detector architecture for cosmic microwave background polarimetry experiments,\u201d Ph.D. dissertation (University of California, Berkeley, 2013)."},{"key":"2026081108503185700_c12","unstructured":"J. C.\n            Groh\n          , \u201cDesign and deployment of the Simons Array cosmic microwave background polarization instrument,\u201d Ph.D. dissertation (University of California, Berkeley, 2021), available at https:\/\/escholarship.org\/."},{"key":"2026081108503185700_c13","unstructured":"L. N.\n            Lowry\n          , \u201cPreparation and deployment of the telescopes and POLARBEAR-2b receiver for the Simons Array cosmic microwave background polarization experiment,\u201d Ph.D. thesis, University of California, San Diego, San Diego, CA, 2021."},{"key":"2026081108503185700_c14","unstructured":"J. C.\n            Ito\n          , \u201cCharacterization and deployment of the POLARBEAR-2b receiver for the Simons Array,\u201d Ph.D. thesis, University of California, 2022."},{"key":"2026081108503185700_c15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"99141I","DOI":"10.1117\/12.2231961","volume":"9914","year":"2016","journal-title":"Proc. SPIE"},{"key":"2026081108503185700_c16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"121901U","DOI":"10.1117\/12.2627513","volume":"12190","year":"2022","journal-title":"Proc. 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Instrum."},{"key":"2026081108503185700_c32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"915301","DOI":"10.1117\/12.2075309","volume":"9153","year":"2014","journal-title":"Proc. SPIE"},{"key":"2026081108503185700_c33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"352","DOI":"10.1007\/s10909-024-03143-9","volume":"216","year":"2024","journal-title":"J.\u00a0Low Temp. Phys."},{"key":"2026081108503185700_c34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1109\/TASC.2021.3065283","volume":"31","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Appl. Supercond."},{"key":"2026081108503185700_c35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1088\/0067-0049\/209\/1\/17","volume":"209","year":"2013","journal-title":"Astrophys. J., Suppl. Ser."},{"key":"2026081108503185700_c36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"121","DOI":"10.3847\/1538-4357\/aa8e9f","volume":"848","author":"POLARBEAR Collaboration","year":"2017","journal-title":"Astrophys. J."},{"key":"2026081108503185700_c37","volume-title":"Planets, Stars and Stellar Systems Telescopes and Instrumentation","year":"2013"},{"key":"2026081108503185700_c38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"A122","DOI":"10.1051\/0004-6361\/201630311","volume":"607","author":"Planck Collaboration","year":"2017","journal-title":"Astron. Astrophys."},{"key":"2026081108503185700_c39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"8102","DOI":"10.1364\/ao.52.008102","volume":"52","year":"2013","journal-title":"Appl. Opt."},{"key":"2026081108503185700_c40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1628","DOI":"10.1364\/ao.478048","volume":"62","year":"2023","journal-title":"Appl. Opt."},{"key":"2026081108503185700_c41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1618","DOI":"10.1364\/AO.515508","volume":"63","year":"2024","journal-title":"Appl. Opt."},{"key":"2026081108503185700_c42","unstructured":"J.\n            Montgomery\n          , \u201cDigital frequency domain multiplexing readout: Design and performance of the SPT-3G instrument and LiteBIRD satellite readout,\u201d Ph.D. thesis, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada, 2020."},{"key":"2026081108503185700_c43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"014001","DOI":"10.1117\/1.JATIS.8.1.014001","volume":"8","year":"2022","journal-title":"J.\u00a0Astron. Telesc., Instrum. Syst."},{"key":"2026081108503185700_c44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1070803","DOI":"10.1117\/12.2312426","volume":"10708","year":"2018","journal-title":"Proc. SPIE"},{"key":"2026081108503185700_c45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"237","DOI":"10.1007\/s10909-024-03127-9","volume":"216","year":"2024","journal-title":"J.\u00a0Low Temp. Phys."},{"key":"2026081108503185700_c46","unstructured":"Y.\n            Inoue\n          , \u201cDevelopment of POLARBEAR-2 receiver system for cosmic microwave background polarization experiment,\u201d Ph.D. thesis, SOKENDAI (The Graduate University for Advanced Studies), Department of Particle and Nuclear Physics School of High Energy Accelerator Science, Japan, 2016."},{"key":"2026081108503185700_c47","unstructured":"C. A.\n            Hill\n          , \u201cSensitivity simulations and half-wave plate polarization modulators for cosmic microwave background observatories,\u201d Ph.D. dissertation (University of California, Berkeley, 2020)."},{"key":"2026081108503185700_c48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"PC131021Q","DOI":"10.1117\/12.3020704","volume":"PC13102","year":"2024","journal-title":"Proc. SPIE"}],"container-title":["Review of Scientific Instruments"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/pubs.aip.org\/aip\/rsi\/article-pdf\/doi\/10.1063\/5.0319093\/21101707\/083101_1_5.0319093.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"syndication"},{"URL":"https:\/\/pubs.aip.org\/aip\/rsi\/article-pdf\/doi\/10.1063\/5.0319093\/21101707\/083101_1_5.0319093.pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,11]],"date-time":"2026-08-11T12:50:38Z","timestamp":1786452638000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/pubs.aip.org\/rsi\/article\/97\/8\/083101\/3400726\/Performance-characterization-of-the-transition"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,1]]},"references-count":48,"journal-issue":{"issue":"8","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,1]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1063\/5.0319093","relation":{},"ISSN":["0034-6748","1089-7623"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0034-6748","type":"print"},{"value":"1089-7623","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published-other":{"date-parts":[[2026,8]]},"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,1]]},"article-number":"083101"}}