{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,21]],"date-time":"2026-04-21T17:29:20Z","timestamp":1776792560994,"version":"3.51.2"},"reference-count":48,"publisher":"AIP Publishing","issue":"8","funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100007691","name":"University of Beira\n              Interior","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["POCI-01-0247-FEDER-026653"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["POCI-01-0247-FEDER-026653"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100007691","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["pubs.aip.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":[],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2020,8,1]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>Violent respiratory diseases, i.e., coronavirus (COVID-19), spread through saliva in coughs and sneezes or are even exhaled in the form of microbial pathogen micro-droplets. Therefore, in this work, a comprehensive fully coupled Eulerian\u2013Lagrangian method has been applied for infection control, thus leading to a deeper understanding of the saliva-disease-carrier droplet transmission mechanisms and also of their trajectory tracking by using the OpenFOAM package. This model determines the droplet\u2013air interactions, the breakup process, and turbulent dispersion forces on each micro-droplet that is expelled within the respiratory tract in a correct way. By examining a broad range of initial velocities, size distributions, injection angles of saliva micro-droplets, and mouth opening areas, we predict the maximum opening area that can be driven by micro-droplets. One important contribution of this work is to present a correlation for the length and width of the overall direct maximum reach of the micro-droplets, driven by a wide range of mild coughs to intense sneezes. Our results indicate that the movement of the expelled droplets is mainly influenced by their size, angle, velocity, and environmental factors. During a virus crisis, like COVID-19, this paper can be used to determine the \u201csocial distance\u201d between individuals to avoid contamination, by inhaling or touching their bodies, due to these saliva-disease-carrier droplets in sneezing, at various social distance positions such as face-to-face, meeting standing, and near equipment. The safe distance must be increased to around 4 m during a sneeze. By wearing a face mask and by bending the head during a sneeze as a protective action, we can reduce the contamination area to one-third and three-quarters, respectively. Furthermore, the dispersion of the film of the expelled saliva micro-droplets and the spatial relationship between the subjects, which affects the airflow inside the room, are also analyzed in detail.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1063\/5.0018432","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,8,11]],"date-time":"2020-08-11T14:36:00Z","timestamp":1597156560000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1063\/aip-crossmark-policy-page","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":191,"title":["Numerical modeling of the distribution of virus carrying saliva droplets\n          during sneeze and cough"],"prefix":"10.1063","volume":"32","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9652-771X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mohammad-Reza","family":"Pendar","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electromechanical Engineering, C-MAST (Center for Mechanical and Aerospace Sciences and Technologies), University of Beira Interior , Covilh\u00e3, Castelo Branco 6201-001,","place":["Portugal"]}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7019-3766","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jos\u00e9 Carlos","family":"P\u00e1scoa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electromechanical Engineering, C-MAST (Center for Mechanical and Aerospace Sciences and Technologies), University of Beira Interior , Covilh\u00e3, Castelo Branco 6201-001,","place":["Portugal"]}]}],"member":"317","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,8,11]]},"reference":[{"issue":"3","key":"2025052318111013200_c1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"584","DOI":"10.1152\/japplphysiol.00873.2009","article-title":"Effect of airway opening on production of exhaled\n            particles","volume":"108","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. 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